VISION & MISSINZ FACTS & FIGURES

WELCOME TO
FRANKFURT SCHOOL
Mathematics for Economy, module I
Pre-University Foundation Programme

Lesson 6, [Link].2025
Elisabetta Prencipe
 Outline

Course: Mathematics module I

Module coordinator: Dr. Elisabetta Prencipe [Link]@[Link]

37 lectures (2h each), 15 topics, 2 internal tests, 3 quizzes, 1 exam: min 50% required

Homework assignments (team work), graded

6 hours/week (Mon, Tue, Thur). Min 75% presence is mandatory request

Sign up in the Canvas system and decide which is your 4-people team

Slides available in Canvas at the end of every lesson

Suggested book:

‘’Mathematics for economists - An introductory textbook’’, fourth edition

Authors: Malcolm Pemberton and Nicholas Rau
...but I will heavily use the whiteboard: be ready with your
notebook!
Elisabetta Prencipe FSFM - Mathematics Module I 3
 Table of contents
1. Placement test 2

2. Real and complex numbers; multi-dimensional space 4 02-04.09.2025 (4 hours!)

3. Linear equations 4 08.09.2025
4. Linear inequalities 6 11-15-16.09.2023, 18.09.2025
5. Sets and Functions 4 18-29.09.2025; 18.09 QUIZ (45’)
6. Quadratic, indices, logarithms, pol. Decomposition 2 30.09.2025
7. Internal Test 1 2 02.10.2025 (1h test, 1h discussion)
8. Sequences, series and limits 6 06-07-09.10.2025
9. Introduction to differentiation 6 13-14-16.10.2025; 13.10 QUIZ (45’)
10. Methods of differentiation 6 27-28-30.10.2025
11. Maxima and minima 6 03-04-06.10.2025
12. Exponential and logarithmic functions 6 03-04-06.11.2025 3.11 QUIZ (45’)
Elisabetta Prencipe FSFM - Mathematics Module I 4
 Table of contents

13. Study of functions of real variables 14 06-20.11.2023
14. Internal Test 2 2 10.11.2025

15. Miscellaneaous: EXAM PREPARATION 4-6 01-02-04.12.2025

EXAM WEEK: 13-20 December 2025

WINTER BREAK
END OF THE SEMESTER

Holidays: 03.10, 18-25.10

Elisabetta Prencipe FSFM - Mathematics Module I 5

 Linear Inequalities
Lecture: [Link].2025

Elisabetta Prencipe FSMF- Mathematics I 6

 Goals of this chapter

●
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
- understand what a function is
- describe sets in ℝn
- rearrange algebraic expressions
- sketch the graph of a function

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 7

Content of this lecture

Sets Functions

Mapping
Sets
 Introduction

●
Set = a collection of objects seen as a single entity, classified as
elements or members

●
Members of a set are listed in braces, e.g.: {1, 2, 3,…}
- order does not matter
- common properties can define a set
- a subset is a part of a set: all inclusion/intersection properties
apply

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 10

 Definitions
●
Empty set is a set with no members: ∅
- ∅ is a subset of any set
●
Finite set is a set with a finite number of members (also ∅ is a finite set)
- singleton: set with only one member
●
Families of sets are those including the set itself and all its subsets
●
Disjoint sets are those where the intersection is ∅
- 3 or more sets are pairwise disjoint if any of the 2 of them are disjoint

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 11

 Operations

●
A, B = sets
We can define: union and intersection of sets.

A ∪ B, B ∪ A are equivalent; but we can also define also A ∪ A or B ∪ B

A ∪ B = {x: x ∈ A or x ∈ B }

A ∩ B = {x: x ∈ A and x ∈ B }

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 12

 Operations

1. (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
2. (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
3. (A ∩ B) ∪ C = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
4. A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

Reflect: Are you able to demonstrate this rules?

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 13

 Venn diagrams

●
A Venn diagram: overlapping circles or other shapes to illustrate the logical
relationships between two or more groups of things.

A B

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 14

 Complements

●
A, B are 2 sets, such as: A ⊂ B (it means: A is a subset of B)
All member of A not included in B are a new set: the complement of A in B
●
The complement of A in B is indicated as: AC
Note: (AC)C = A
●
De Morgan’s Laws:

(A ∪ B)C = AC ∩ BC
(A ∩ B)C = AC ∪ BC

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 15

 Intervals

●
We are interested in intervals of real numbers
●
The idea of intervals recalls that of inequalities (a < b < c)
●
An interval is a subset of ℝ

a b c

x
0

●
Intervals can be open or closed (it contains or not contains the endpoints)
10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 16
 Intervals
●
Closed interval: a ≤ x ≤ b, [a, b]
●
Open intervals: a < x < b, (a, b)
●
Intervals not open, not closed: a ≤ x < b, a < x ≤ b, then [a, b), (b, a]

●
As an example, in the following we use the set of real numbers

a(b+c) = ab + bc
(a+b)c = ac + bc
(a+b)(c+d)= ac+ad+bc+bd
a/b, but b ≠0
-(-a) = a
0 belongs to this set

Real numbers builds an Algebra. Can you tell me why?

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 17
 Real number and squared numbers

a, b ∈ℝ

a⋅a = a2
(-a)⋅(-a) = a2
(-a)⋅(-b) = ab
If x ∈ℝ : x ∈[a,b] → (x-a)(x-b) = x2 - ax - bx + ab quadratic expression
●
Consequence: x2 +2ax + b2 = (x+a)2 + (b2-a2)
●
This rearrangement is known as completing the square

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 18

 The plane as a set
ℝ2 = {(x,y): x ∈ℝ and y ∈ℝ}
●
(x,y) represents an ordered number pair in a plane → the order matters!
●
Ordered pairs in a plane represent specific points of ℝ2
●
Straight lines can be regarded as subsets of the ℝ2 set
●
Inequalities in the xy-plane represent also subsets of the ℝ2 set

●
Generalization in n-dimensions:

ℝn = {(x1, x2, x3, …, xn): xi∈ℝ, for i = 1, 2, 3, ...n}

It defines an ordered list in n-dimensions (e.g. a point in n-dimensions in multi-
dimesional space)

Example 1: budget set of consumer who consumes five goods → ℝ5

Example 2: a linear programme in 9 variables → subset of ℝ9
10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 19
 Functions
10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 20
 What is a function?

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 21

 What is a function?

●
Answer: a function is a ‘Rule’

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 22

 What is a function?

●
Answer: a function is a ‘Rule’
A rule which transforms a real number in another real number is called function
defined in ℝ with values in ℝ.
f(x)
x y
●
Example: y = ax + b, a,b ∈ ℝ and ∀ x ∈ ℝ → linear function from ℝ to ℝ
Range of f: ℝ, a≠0; if a = 0, b is a singleton
●
Many other functions can be defined, even not linear.

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 23

Examples
Functions in ℝ
Example 1: f(x) = x2

Example 2: | x |

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 24

 Graphs
●
The graph of a function from ℝ to ℝ is the set:

{(x,y) ∈ ℝ2 : y = f(x)}

●
Sketching a graph = draw a picture representing (x, f(x))
●
Suggestion: always look for symmetries!

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 25

Examples
Applications

●
Sketch the function: f(x) = x

●
Pythagoras’ theorem: c2 = a2 + b2

●
Distance in ℝ2

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 26

Examples
Applications

●
4 goods, with assigned prices (3, 5, 7, 9). If I buy quantities x1, x2, x3, x4 of these
goods, I spent:

3x1 + 5x2 + 7x3 + 9x4

C = {(x1, x2, x3, x4) ∈ ℝ4: xi ≥ 0 for i = 1, 2, 3, 4}

f(x1, x2, x3, x4) = 3x1 + 5x2 + 7x3 + 9x4

independent variables or argument of the function

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 27

Mapping
10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 28
 Mapping

●
Function→ transformation rule related to a set
●
In other cases, we say ‘mapping’
Example: g(x,y) = (-y, x)
●
General rules of composite mapping: (f°g)(x) = f(g(x))

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 29

Learning
time
together
Applications
●
Venn Diagrams
Draw a Venn diagram illustrating the relationship between sets A and B
c

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 30

Learning
time
together
Applications
●
Venn Diagrams
Draw a Venn diagram illustrating the relationship between sets as in slide 30

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 31

Learning
time
together
Applications
●
Sets and Operations
Consider the sets:
A={0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9},
B={1,4,6,7,10,14},
C={3,5,6,7,9},
D={0,2,4,6,8}.
Find the sets :

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 32

arning
e
ether
Applications
●
Intervals

The following sets are given:

a) Prove that B∪X = {3, 4, 5}. X = real numbers solution of A.

if
If the given set D = B∪X was: {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ,9}, prove that B ∩ Y = {3},
where:

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 33

Learning
time
together
Applications
●
Functions
Evaluate f(x)-1 f°g(x) given the following functions:

a) f(x) = x +1, g(x) = x2

b) f(x) = x2 +3, g(x) = x-1

c) f(x) = x, g(x) = x

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 34

 “Tell me and I forget,
teach me and I may remember,
involve me and I learn”
learn
(Benjamin Franklin)

END OF THE LESSON 6

10/14/25 FSMF- Mathematics I 35