2.

MATHEMATICAL METHODS
Scalars and vectors:
“The physical quantity which can be represented completely by its magnitude alone is
called scalar quantity.” E.g. Mass, speed, temperature, time, etc.
“The physical quantity for the representation of which both magnitudes as well as
direction are required is called vector quantity.” E.g. Weight, velocity, acceleration, force,
etc.
Distinguishing between scalars and vectors:
Scalars Vectors
1. Vectors possess magnitude as well as
1. Scalars possess only magnitudes.
direction
2. These do not obey the ordinary laws of
2. These obey ordinary laws of algebra.
algebra.
3. These changes only when magnitude is 3. These changes if either magnitude or
changed. direction or both changes.
Representation of vector:
There are two methods for the vector representation: i) Analytical method, and ii)
Geometrical method
In the analytical method any vector can be represented by corresponding letter with
arrow on its head. Or corresponding bold face type letter.
∴ The vector force is represented as: F or F.
In the geometrical method any vector can be represented by the arrow. The length of
the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the vector and the direction of the arrow is
in the direction of the vector.
Types of the vectors:
There are different types of the vectors. Following are the most used types of the vectors:
i) Zero vectors: The vector having zero magnitude is called the zero vectors.
Examples: (1) Velocity vector of a stationary particle is a zero vector.
(2) The acceleration vector of an object moving with uniform velocity is a zero vector.
ii) Unit vector: The vector having the unit magnitude is called the unit vector.
Unit vector in the direction of given vector is the ratio of that vector with its
magnitude. The unit vectors in the direction of X, Y and Z – axis are represented by
i, j and k resp. Any vector can be represented as the product of its magnitude and the unit

[RSG/XI/PHY-I/MATHEMATICAL METHODS] Page 1

 vector in the direction of that vector. E.g. Unit vector in the direction of vector A is
A
represented as A0 & is given by: A0 = A so that A = A A0

iii) Equal / parallel vectors: The vectors having same direction are called parallel vectors
while the vectors having magnitude as well as direction same are called the equal vectors.
iv) Anti-parallel/negative vectors: The vectors having opposite directions are called anti-
parallel vectors while the vectors having opposite direction but equal magnitudes are
called negative vectors of each other.
v) Resultant Vector: The resultant of two or more vectors is defined as that single vector,
which produce the same effect as produced by all the vectors together.
vi) Position Vector: A vector which gives the position of particle at a point with respect to
the origin of chosen coordinate system.
Vector Operations:
Multiplication of a vector by a scalar:
Multiplying a vector by scalar quantity yields another vector whose direction remains the
same but magnitude is scalar times the magnitude of the original vector.
E.g. If a vector P is multiplied by a scalar k we get the vector Q ∴ Q = k P. Here Q will
be a vector whose direction is the same as that of P and magnitude is k times the
magnitude of P.
Addition and subtraction of vectors: There are two methods of the vector addition:
i) Triangle law method, and ii) Parallelogram method.
I) Triangle law method:
This method is based on law of triangle of vectors, which can be stated as:
Triangle law of vector addition: “When the two adjacent sides of the triangle
represents two vectors in magnitude as well as direction taken in same order then the third
side of the triangle taken in the opposite order represents the vector addition of these two
vector s in magnitude and direction”.
Explanation: Let we have the two vectors P and Q as shown in figure (a) and we want to

Q find addition (P + Q).

B C
To find this vector addition completes
P P R=p+Q
Q
the triangle as shown in figure (b).
Then according to the law of triangle of
A
Fig. (a) vectors as sides AB and BC represents
Fig. (b)

[RSG/XI/PHY-I/MATHEMATICAL METHODS] Page 2

 the two vectors, the third side taken in the opposite order i.e. AC represents the vector
addition (P + Q) .
By using the triangle law of vector addition we can prove the followings:
(a) Vector addition is commutative:
For any two vectors P and Q we can prove, (P + Q) = (Q + P)
Figure (b) shows the addition of two
Q
B C vectors in two different ways. Triangle

P R P ABC shows
P
Q
P + Q = R = AC, while triangle ADC
D
A Q
Fig. (a) shows Q + P = R = AC
Fig. (b)
∴P+Q=Q+P
(b) Vector addition is associative:
If A, B and C are the three vectors then: A + B + C = A + B + C

Figure shows addition of 3 vectors A, B & C in two different ways to give resultant R .
From triangle OQR, R = A + B + C P B
Q
From triangle OPR, R = A + B + C
A C
A+B B+ C
i.e. A + B + C = A + B + C .
A
Thus the associative law is proved. O R
R A
II) Law of parallelogram of vectors: A
Statement: “If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by two adjacent
sides of a parallelogram starting from a common point, then the diagonal of the
parallelogram starting from the same common point represents the vector addition of
these two vectors in magnitude and direction.”
Expression for magnitude and direction of the resultant:
Two vectors P & Q inclined to each other at an angle of θ are represented in
magnitude and direction by the sides OA and
AB of the parallelogram OACB as shown in B C
figure. The diagonal OC represents the
Q sinθ

Q R
resultant R in magnitude and direction. The
θ α θ
resultant makes an angle α with the vector, P. O D
P A Q cosθ
Draw CD perpendicular to OA produced.

[RSG/XI/PHY-I/MATHEMATICAL METHODS] Page 3

 From ∆ OCD, (OC)2 = (OD)2 + (CD)2
= (OA + AD)2 + (CD)2
= (OA)2 + [(AD)2 + (CD)2] + 2. OA. AD
From ∆ ACD, (AD)2 + (CD)2 = (AC)2 and AD = AC cosθ.
∴ (OC)2 = (OA)2 + (AC)2 + 2.[ OA . (AC cosθ)]
But, OC = R, OA = P and AC = OB = Q
∴ R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2 P Q cosθ

∴ R = P 2 + Q2 + 2 P Q cosθ
This gives the magnitude of the resultant
CD CD
From the ∆ OCD: tan α = OD = OA + AD

From the ∆ ACD, AD = AC cosθ and AD = AC sinθ

AC sin θ Q sin θ
∴ tan α = = This gives the direction of the resultant.
OA + AC cos θ P+Q cos θ

Subtraction of two vectors:

Like addition of vectors, subtraction of vectors can be carried out geometrically. For
that only we have to add negative of a vector to be subtracted to the first vector.
∴ P − Q = P + (− Q )
Resolution and composition of vectors:
Composition of vectors: The addition of the number of vectors gives a single vector
whose effect is same as that of combined effect of the number of vectors.
Resolution of vectors: The process of splitting the given vector into number of its
components is known as the resolution of the given vector. If the given vector is resolved
into components along the Cartesian coordinate axes then the components are called
rectangular components of the vector.
Let a vector A Situated in the XOY plane be represented in Y
P
magnitude and direction by the arrow OP drawn from O as shown R
Ay A
in figure. Let Ax and Ay be the components of A having the
j X
magnitudes Ax and Ay respectively in the direction of X and Y θ

axes respectively.
O 𝑖 Ax Q

From the figure we write according to the law of triangle of vectors: A = OQ +

QP = Ax + Ay = Axi + Ay j
Again form the ∆ OQP, OQ = Ax = A cosθ and PQ = Ay = A sinθ
∴ Ax2 + Ay2 = A2 (cos2θ + sin2θ) = A2
[RSG/XI/PHY-I/MATHEMATICAL METHODS] Page 4
 ∴ A= A2x + A2y This gives the magnitude of the vector in terms of its rectangular

Ay
components. The direction of the vector is represented as: tanθ = A
x

* In the same manner we prove that the vector in the space (three dimensional) is given by:

A = Ax + Ay + Az = Axi + Ay j + Az k and its magnitude is: A = A2x + A2y + A2z

* If the vector A inclines the X, Y and Z axes at an angles α, β and γ respectively then
Ax Ay Az
Cos α = ; Cos β = and Cos γ = these are known as direction cosines of given
A A A

vector.
Products of the vectors: There are two types of the products vectors as:
i) Scalar product or dot product and ii) Vector product or cross product.
I) Scalar product:
Definition: “It is the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the cosine of the
angle between them.”
i.e. For the two vectors P and Q inclined at an angle of θ, the scalar product is given by:
P. Q = P Q cos θ.
Characteristics:
1. Scalar product of two vectors obeys commutative law of vector addition.
i. e. P. Q = Q. P
2. It obeys the distributive law of multiplication over addition.
i. e. P. Q + R = P. Q + P. R

3. The self dot product is equal to the square of the magnitude of that vector. i.e. P. P = P2
4. The scalar product of the two vectors which are perpendicular to each other is zero.
Hence if the scalar product of two non-zero vector is zero then these two vectors are
perpendicular to each other.
5. Scalar product of rectangular unit vectors:
i . i = j . j = k . k = 1 and i . j = j . k = k . i = 0 = j . i = k. j = j. k
6. Scalar product of two vectors can expressed in terms of its rectangular components as:
P. Q = Px Qx + Py Qy + Pz Qz
7. Few physical quantities can be expressed as scalar product as
a) Work done, W = F. S = F S cos θ; b) Power, P = F . V = F V cos θ
c) Magnetic flux, Φ = B . A = B A cos θ; d) Electric flux, Φe = E . A = E A cos θ

[RSG/XI/PHY-I/MATHEMATICAL METHODS] Page 5

II) Vector product / Cross product:
Defn.: “It is a vector whose magnitude is equal to the product of magnitude of two vectors
and sine of the smaller angle between them, and its direction is perpendicular to the plane
containing the two vectors and its direction is given by right hand rule.”
i.e. For the two vectors P and Q inclined at an angle of θ, the magnitude of the vector
product is given by: P x Q = P Q sin θ.
Right hand rule: “Hold the right hand such that the fingers are curled and thumb is
outstretched. In this if curling of the fingers is from first vector to second in the product,
then the outstretched thumb is in the direction of the vector product of these two vectors.”
Characteristics:
1. Vector product of two vectors does not obey the commutative law of vector addition.
i. e. P x Q ≠ Q x P But PxQ= − QxP

2. It obeys the distributive law of multiplication. i. e. P x Q + R = P x Q + P x R

3. The self cross product is zero. Or the cross product of two parallel vectors is zero. Hence
if the cross product of two non-zero vectors is zero then these two vectors are parallel or
anti – parallel to each other. i. e. P x P = 0
4. The magnitudes of the vector product of rectangular unit vectors:
i x i = j x j = k x k = 0 and
i x j = k; j x k = i; k x i = j; j x i = −k; k x j = −i; i x k = −j
5. The vector product of two vectors can be expressed in term of their rectangular
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
components as: P x Q = 𝑃𝑥 𝑃𝑦 𝑃𝑧
𝑄𝑥 𝑄𝑦 𝑄𝑧
6. The cross product of two vectors represents the area of the parallelogram.
Area = Base x height = Q h P h
But from the figure, h = P sin θ θ Q

∴ Area = Q P sin θ this is magnitude of the vector product of P and Q

7. Few physical quantities can be expressed as the vector product of two or number of
vectors as:
a) Angular momentum, L = r x P = r p sin θ x u
b) Torque, τ = r x f = r f sin θ x u
c) The force on charge moving inside the magnetic field,

[RSG/XI/PHY-I/MATHEMATICAL METHODS] Page 6

 F = q x V x B = q V B sin θ x u

d) Linear velocity in circular motion, V = ω x r = ωr sin θ x u

e) Moment of couple on the bar magnet, τ = M x B = M B sin θ x u
Introduction to Calculus:
Calculus is concerned with continuous changes in mathematical quantities. You
will study calculus in mathematics in std. XIIth. We will introduce here two basic
branches of calculus namely differential calculus and integral calculus.
Differential Calculus:
Let y = f(x). Here x is called an independent variable and f(x) gives the values of y
for different values of x, which is called dependent variable. It is useful in graphical
methods, mostly useful in physics experiments. Usually y = f(x) is taken (plotted) on Y-
y2 − y1
axis and x on X-axis. If the relation between them is linear, the slope is tanθ = . If
x 2 −x 1

the relation is non-linear (i.e a curve), we consider limit, which you will study later in
mathematics. Here, dy/dx = Slope of the tangent = tanθ. The rate of change of „y‟ with
respect to „x‟ is represented as:
lim f x+∆x − f(x) d
= f(x). Here dy/dx is called the derivative of y with respect to
∆x → 0 ∆x dx

x i.e. the rate of change of y with respect to change in x. The process of finding the
derivative is called differentiation.
Let f1(x) = u and f2(x) =v be two different functions of ‘x’ and let ‘k’ be a constant.
Some useful properties of differentiation are as under:
d(ku ) du d(u + v) du dv
1. =k 2. = +
dx dx dx dx dx
du dv
d(u v) dv du d u 1 du u dv v –u
dx dx
3. =u + v 4. = - =
dx dx dx dx v v dx v 2 dx v2
du du dx
5. If x depends on another variable time „t‟ then, = .
dt dx dt
Derivatives of some useful functions in physics:
d d d
1. x n = n x n−1 2. ex = ex and dx ekx = k ekx
dx dx
d 1 d
3. log x = x 4. sinx = cosx
dx dx
d d
5. cosx = − sinx 6. tanx = sec2x
dx dx
d d
7. dx
cotx = - cosec2x 8. dx
secx = tanx . secx

[RSG/XI/PHY-I/MATHEMATICAL METHODS] Page 7

 d
9. cosecx = - cosecx. cotx
dx

Integral Calculus:
Integral of a function f(x) i.e. f x dx is the area under the curve f(x) versus x. It
is the reverse process of differentiation. The process of obtaining the integral is called
integration.
F(x) = f x dx. F(x) is called the indefinite integral of f(x) [i.e. without any limits on x]
d
∴ f(x) = dx F(x)
b b
∴ F(x) = F(b) – F(a) = a
f x dx [This is definite integral i.e. with limits on x]
a
The properties of integration are as given below:
1. u + v dx = u dx + v dx [∵ F1(x) = u and F2(x) = v]
2. k f x dx = k f x dx if k is constant.
Indefinite integrals of some basic functions are as mentioned below (c is constant of
integration):
x n +1 1
1. x n dx = +c 2. dx = log x + c
n+1 x

3. sinx dx = - cosx + c 4. cos x dx = sin x + c

(1−cos 2x) 1 sin 2x
5. ex dx = ex + c 6. sin2 x dx = dx = 2 x − +C
2 2
1 x
7. dx = sin-1 +C
a2 − x2 a

* * * * *
EXERCISES
1. Choose the correct option.
i) The resultant of two forces 10 N and 15 N acting along +X and –X axes
respectively is
(A) 25 N along + X-axis (B) 25 N along – X – axis
(C) 5 N along + X-axis (D) 5 N along – X-axis.
Ans: (D) 5 N along – X –axis.
ii) For two vectors to be equal, they should have the
(A) same magnitude (B) same direction
(C) same magnitude and direction (D) same magnitude but opposite direction
Ans: (C) same magnitude and direction

[RSG/XI/PHY-I/MATHEMATICAL METHODS] Page 8

 iii) The magnitude of scalar product of two unit vectors perpendicular to each other is
(A) - 1 (B) Zero
(C) 1 (D) 2
Ans: (B) Zero
iv) The magnitude of vector product of two unit vectors making an angle of 600 with
each other is
(A) 2 (B) 3/2
(C) 1 (D) 31/2 / 2
Ans: (D) 31/2 / 2
| A x B | = A B sinθ ⇒ | u x v | = u v sin600 = 1 x 1 x sin600 = 31/2 / 2
v) If A, B and C are three vectors, then which of the following is NOT correct?
(A) A . ( B + C ) = A.B + A.C (B) A . B ) = B . A
(C) (A x B) = B x A. (D) A x ( B + C ) = A x B + A x C
Ans: (C) (A x B) = B x A.
2. Answer the following questions.
i− j
i) Show that a = is a unit vector.
2

1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1
Ans: a = i- j⇒|a|= + = + =1
2 2 2 2 2 2

As magnitude of a is 1 it is a unit vector.

ii) If v1 = 3i + 4j + k and v2 = i - j - k, determine the magnitude of, v1 + v2
Ans: v1 + v2 = (3 + 1) i + (4 – 1) j + (1 – 1) k = 4 i + 3 j
∴ |v1 + v2 | = 16 + 9 = 5
iii) For v1 = 2i - 3j and v2 = - 6 i + 5 j, determine magnitude and direction of v1 + v2
Ans: v1 + v2 = (2 - 6) i + (- 3 + 5) j = - 4 i + 2 j ⇒ ∴ |v1 + v2 | = 16 + 4 = 2 5
Angle made by v1 + v2 = - 4 i + 2 j with x-axis is, θ = tan-1 (Ay / Ax) = tan-1(- 2/4)
∴ θ = tan-1(-1 / 2) with x – axis.
* OR θ = cos-1(Ay / A) = cos-1(- 2 / 2 5) = cos-1(1 / 5) with x - axis
* OR θ = sin-1 (Ax / A) = sin-1 (- 4 / 2 5) = sin-1(- 2 / 5)with x – axis
iv) Find the vector which is parallel to v = i - 2j and has a magnitude of 10.
v i 2j
Ans: v = i - 2j ⇒ | v | = 1 + 4 = 5 ∴ Unit vector along v is u = = –
v 5 5

∴ A vector of magnitude 10 parallel to this vector i.e. along u is R = 10 u

[RSG/XI/PHY-I/MATHEMATICAL METHODS] Page 9

 10 i 20 j
∴ R = 10 u = –
5 5
5
v) Show that the vectors a = 2i + 5j - 6k and b = i + 2 j - 3k are parallel.

Ans: The vectors are parallel if magnitude of their cross product is zero.
i j k
∴axb= 2 5 −6 = i (-15 + 15) - j (- 6 + 6) + k (5 – 5) = 0i - 0j + 0k = 0
1 5/2 −3

∴ | a x b | = 0 ⇒ a and b are parallel vectors.

OR
2 5 −6
Components of two vectors are in proportion, i.e. 1 = 5 = − 3
2

∴ a and b are parallel vectors.

3. Solve the following problems.
i) Determine a x b if a = 2i + 3j and b = 3i + 5j .
Ans: a x b = (2i + 3j ) x (3i + 5j) = 6 (i x i) + 10 (i x j) + 9 (j x i) + 15(j x j) = k
ii) Show that the vectors a = 2i + 3j + 6k, b = 3i - 6j + 2k and c = 6i + 2j - 3k are
mutually perpendicular.
Ans: a.b = 2i + 3j + 6k . 3i − 6j + 2k = (2x3) + (3x-6) + (6x2) = 0
a.c = 2i + 3j + 6k . 6i + 2j − 3k = (2x6) + (3x2) + (6x-3) = 0

b.c = b = 3i − 6j + 2k . 6i + 2j − 3k = (3x6) + (-6x2) + (2x-3) = 0

As, a.b = a.c = b.c = 0, vectors a, b and c are mutually perpendicular.

(iii) Determine the vector product of v1 = 2i + 3j - k and v2 = i + 2j - 3k
i j k
Ans: a x b = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
i j k
∴ v1 x v2 = 2 3 −1 = i (-9 + 2) - j (- 6 + 1) + k (4 – 3) = −7 i + 5 j + k
1 2 −3
iv) Given, v1 = 5i + 2j and v2 = ai - 6j are perpendicular to each other, determine the
value of a.
Ans: As given vectors are perpendicular their scalar product must be zero.
∴ v1 . v2 = (5i + 2j) . (ai - 6j) = 0 ⇒ 5(a) + 2(-6) = 0 ⇒ a = 12/5.
v) Obtain the derivatives of the following functions.
(A) x sinx, (B) x4 + cosx, (C) x / sinx

[RSG/XI/PHY-I/MATHEMATICAL METHODS] Page 10

 d dx d
Ans: (A) dx x sinx = sinx . dx + x dx sinx = sinx + xcosx
d d d
(B) dx x 4 + cosx = dx x 4 + dx (cos x) = 4x3 – sinx
d x 1 d x d 1 x cosx
(C) dx = sinx . dx (x) - sin 2 (x) . dx (sinx) = sinx – sin 2 (x)
sinx

vi) Using the rule of differentiation for quotient rule of two functions, prove that
d sinx
= sec2(x)
dx cosx

Ans: If u = f1(x) and v = f2(x) are the two functions then the quotient rule for
du dv
d u v −u
dx dx
differentiation is: = .
dx v v2
d d
d sinx cosx . sinx – sinx . cosx
dx dx
∴ dx =
cosx cos 2 (x)
cosx .cosx −sinx .(−sinx )
= cos 2 (x)

cos 2 x + sin 2 (x)

= = 1 + tan2x = sec2 x. Hence proved.
cos 2 (x)
1
OR = cos 2 (x) = sec2x

vii) Evaluate the following integrals.

π/2 5
(A) 0
sinx dx (B) 1
x dx
π/2 π/2
Ans: (A) 0
sinx dx = − cosx 0 = - cos(π/2) – (- cos 0) = 0 – ( -1) = 1
5
5 x2
(B) 1
x dx = = ½ [52 – 12] = ½ [24] = 12.
2 1

* * * * *

[RSG/XI/PHY-I/MATHEMATICAL METHODS] Page 11