Chapter 21:

Electric Charge.

Coulomb’s Law (electrical force between charged particles).

Electric field due to point charges.

Motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field.

Electric field due to a continuous distribution of charge.

 Electric Charge

Basic (intrinsic) property of matter (just like, say, mass).

Symbol: q , unit: = C (named after Coulomb)

Two kinds of charge: + -

• like charges repel

• opposite charges attract

Elementary particles that make up atoms:

• Protons + charge +e = +1.6x10-19 C

• Neutrons uncharged

• Electrons - charge –e = –1.6x10-19 C

Helium atom
Chapter 21:

Electric Charge.

Coulomb’s Law (electrical force between charged

particles).

Electric field due to point charges.

Motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field.

Electric field due to a continuous distribution of charge.

 Coulomb’s Law (empirical law)
Force between two point charges q1 and q2:
• force is vector, directed along connecting line

• magnitude: q1q 2
F k 2 Inverse squared law
12 r12

r12 is the distance between the charges

2
Nm 1 C2
k  9 109
 with 0  8.85 1012 .
C 2
40 Nm 2

k is Coulomb’s constant, ε0 is permittivity of free space.

Example 1: a positive charge Q1 = +Q is located a distance d
along the y-axis from the origin. A second positive charge
Q2 = +Q is located at the origin and a negative charge Q3 = -2Q
is located on the x-axis a distance 2d away from Q1. The three
charges are fixed at their locations. Calculate the net
electrostatic force on Q1 due to the other two charges.
y

Q1=+Q

d
2d

Q2=+Q Q3=-2Q x
Calculate the net electrostatic force on Q1 due to the other two
charges.
r r r
y F  F2  F3

r q1q2 ˆ  +Q  +Q  ˆ Q2 ˆ
F2  k 2 j  k jk 2 j
F2 r12 d2 d
r
Q1=+Q F3  F3x ˆi  F3y ˆj

F3 r
d
2d F3  F3 cos ˆi  F3 sin ˆj

Q2=+Q x r q1q3 q1q3
Q3=-2Q F3  k 2 cos i  k 2 sin ˆj
ˆ
r13 r13
1 3
sin   cos 
2 2 r  +Q  -2Q  3 ˆ  +Q  -2Q  1 ˆ
F3  k i  k j
 2d  2d
2 2
2 2
Calculate the net electrostatic force on Q1 due to the other two
charges.

y r  +Q  -2Q  3 ˆ  +Q  -2Q  1 ˆ
F3  k i  k j
 2d  2d
2 2
2 2

F2 r 2Q 2 3 ˆ 2Q 2 1 ˆ
F3  k i  k j
Q1=+Q
4d 2
2
4d 2
2


F3 r 3 kQ 2 ˆ 1 kQ 2 ˆ
d
2d F3  i  j
4 d 2
4 d2


Q2=+Q Q3=-2Q x r r r Q2 ˆ 3 kQ 2 ˆ 1 kQ 2 ˆ
F  F2  F3  k 2 j + i  j
d 4 d 2
4 d2

r 3 kQ 2 ˆ 3 kQ 2 ˆ
F i  j
4 d 2
4 d2
 y

F2
r 3 kQ 2 ˆ 3 kQ 2 ˆ
F F i  j
4 d 2
4 d2

Q1=+Q

F3
d
2d

Q2=+Q Q3=-2Q x

Quiz 1: If Q1 were free to move, in what direction would its initial

acceleration be? How would I calculate the acceleration?
Chapter 21:

Electric Charge.

Coulomb’s Law (electrical force between charged particles).

Electric field due to point charges.

Motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field.

Electric field due to a continuous distribution of charge.

 The Electric Field
• a charged particle Q
does creater a “field” in
all space: E
• other charged particle (q) +
located at P does sense (feel)
the field and thus experiences
a force (F) in response.

Definition of electric field:

r r This is the force F exerted by the field E (created
F = qE by Q) on the charge q. It is a vector equation that
tells you magnitude and direction of the force.

F & E are parallel for +ve q : if E is in –j, then F is in –j as well.

F & E are antiparallel for –ve q : if F is in +k, then E is in –k.
 r
r  F0 
N
The SI units of electric field are  E  = =
  q0  C
newtons/coulomb.

The direction of the electric field is radially outward

(away) from positive charge (+Q) and radially inward
(towards) negative charge (-Q).

+
 The Electric Field
Due to a Point Charge
qq1q1q2 2
Coulomb's law says F =kk 22 ,
12 r12r12

If q1 creates an electric field, and q2 enters this field, then the

electric field due to the point charge q1 (the source) is the
electric force F12 divided by q2
r q1
|E q1 |=k 2
r12

or, generally
q
E=k 2
r
If we define r̂ as a unit vector from the source point to the field
point…
source point
r̂ +

field point

…then the vector equation for the electric field of a point

charge becomes:

r q
E=k 2 rˆ r̂
Radially outward for +ve q
Radially inward for –ve q
r
Example 2: calculate the magnitude of the electric field at the
electron’s distance away from the proton in a hydrogen atom
(5.3x10-11 m).

+e -e EP
+ -

k q k(+e) 9 10 1.6 10  N

19
D 9

EP  2  
 5.3 10  C
11 2
2
r D

N
EP  5.110
11

Quiz 2: What is the force exerted by this field on the electron?

Example 3 : calculate the electric field at point P, which lies on
the perpendicular bisector a distance L from the line d.
y r r r
E+ E = E  E

 E y = 0 (by symmetry!)
P 

E x = 2E  ,x (by symmetry!)
E-
r L r
E x = +2E  cos 

 
+q + - -q
x

d
Example: calculate the electric field at point P, which lies on the
perpendicular bisector a distance L from the line d.
y E x = +2E  cos 
E+


P 
d/2 d
E x = +2E = +E
r r
E-
r L r
k q d kqd
Ex =+ 2 = 3
r r r

 d/2 d/2  - r qd ˆ
+q + -q E = i
x 40 r 3

d
 An Electric Dipole p
An electric dipole is a combination of two electric charges with
equal magnitude and opposite sign, separated by a fixed
distance.
+q + p - -q

d
The electric dipole moment is defined as the vector p directed
from -q toward +q along the line joining the charges and
having magnitude
r r
p  qd,
The SI unit for p is C.m
This is an electric dipole. Later in the course we’ll study magnetic dipoles.
Example 3 (revisited): calculate the electric field at point P,
which lies on the perpendicular bisector a distance L from a
dipole of charge q.

The Electric Field of a Dipole

+q + - -q

d
 P
E r qd ˆ
E = i
40 r 3

+q + - -q

d
Caution! The above equation for E applies only to points (P) along the
perpendicular bisector of the dipole. We see that the magnitude of E created
by the dipole varies as 1/r3, whereas the more slowly varying filed of a point
charge (monopole) varies as 1/r2. If we put together a pair of equal and
opposite dipoles to make a quadrupole, the field varies as 1/r4. If you
complete this hierarchy and put back-to-back quadrupoles to form an
octopole, can you guess how does its field go like?
 Electric Dipole in a Uniform
External Electric Field

F+
+q
p E

-q
F-

A dipole in a uniform electric field experiences no net force,

but probably experiences a torque…

There is no net force on the dipole:

r r r r r
 F  F  F  qE  qE  0.
 E
F+
+q
p ½ d sin
½ d sin -q

F-

If we choose the midpoint of the dipole as the origin for

calculating the torque, we find
dsin  dsin 
       2 qE  2 qE  qdEsin ,
Recall that the unit of torque is
τ = p E sin N·m, which is not a joule!

and in this case the direction is into the plane of the figure.
Expressed as a vector,
What is the maximum
r r r torque magnitude?
  p  E. For what angle  is the
torque a maximum?
 Energy of an Electric Dipole in a Uniform
External Electric Field

Hmm.. E
F+
Does this awaken vague +q
memories of PHY 101? p

-q
F-
If the dipole is free to rotate, the electric field does work to rotate
the dipole. The electric potential energy associated with it is:
W   z d , plug τ =pEsin into the integrand, U dipole  pE cos .
One should notice that the torque rotates r r
the dipole in the direction that brings the Udipole  p  E.
dipole into greater alignment with the
field. In our case, the torque produces a
clockwise rotation.
 Udipole  pE cos 
+q
F+
p E


-q
F-

With this definition, U is zero* when  = /2.

*Remember, zero potential energy does not mean minimum potential energy!
 Udipole  pE cos 

E
+q  -q
p
F+ F-

U is maximum when cos = -1, or  = 

 Udipole  pE cos 

E
-q =0 +q
p
F- F+

U is minimum when cos = +1, or  = 0

Summary:

r r r
  p E   pE sin  max  pE Units are N·m, but not joules!

r r
Udipole  p  E  pE cos  Umax  pE Units are N·m = joules!

p +q

E

-q
Chapter 21:

Electric Charge.

Coulomb’s Law (electrical force between charged particles).

Electric field due to point charges.

Motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric

field.

Electric field due to a continuous distribution of charge.

 Motion of a Charged Particle
in a Uniform Electric Field

charged particle in electric field experiences force, and if it is

free to move, an acceleration.
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
if the only force is due to the
electric field, then -
E
r r r F
 F  ma  qE. + + + + + + + + + + + + +

if E is constant a constant,
use the equations of kinematics (Physics 101).

Make sure you understand what a uniform (constant) electric field is.
Example 4 : an electron moving with velocity v0 in the positive
x direction enters a region of uniform electric field that makes a
right angle with the electron’s initial velocity.

y
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
x
-e
v0 E

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

I) Express the vectore position and velocity of the electron as a

function of time.
 r r r r
y FE = qE =  -e  E = -eEj = ma
ˆ

r eE
a = - ˆj
x m
-e
v0 E
FE a eE
ax = 0 ay = -
m

Let’s work the rest of the problem one component at a time.

You have to brush up the kinematic equations!
 eE
y ax = 0 ay = -
m
0 0
1 2
x = x i + vix t + a x t
x 2
-e
v0 E
FE a x = v0 t

0 0
1 2
y = yi + viy t + a y t
Position: 2

1 eE 2 1 2 1 eE 2
x = v0 t y=- t y = ayt = - t
2m 2 2m
 eE
y ax = 0 ay = -
m
0
vx = vix + a x t
x
-e
v0 E
FE a v x = v0

0
v y = viy + a y t
Velocity:
eE eE
v x = v0 vy = - t v y = a y t= - t
m m
II) What is the shape of the electron’s path?

1 eE 2
y x = v0 t y=- t
2m

x
x t=
-e v0
v0 E
FE a
2
1 eE  x   1 eE  2
y=-   = - 2 
x
2 m  v0   2 mv0 
The trajectory of the electron is a parabola, concave down.
Just like the trajectory of a ball thrown horizontally in the
gravitational field of the Earth.
III) What would be different for a proton?
 Review of Lecture 1

Coulomb's Law:

r12
1 qqq1q 2
FF =  k 1 22 ,
1212 4πε 0 2r12 + -
r
12 q1 q2

Coulomb’s Law quantifies the force between charged particles.

 Review of Lecture 1

Electric field:
• charges create electric fields
• electric field of a point charge:
q
magnitude: E=k 2
r
direction: away from + , towards -
(Faucet) (Sink)
r r
• force felt by charge q in electric field: F= qE
r
positive charge feels force in direction of E
r
negative charge feels force in direction opposite to E
Chapter 21:

Today’s lecture:

Electric field due to a continuous distribution of charge.

We need to calculate electric field of a charge distributed along some line, over some surface,
or throughout some volume.

Problem:
• our equations for the Coulomb force and the electric
field hold for point charges only (discrete distribution)

Procedure:
• decompose extended object into small charge
elements (chunks)
• calculate electric field for each element
• sum up (integrate) contributions of all elements to
obtain total electric field
 Volume Charge Density
When a charge Q is distributed throughout a volume V, the
Volume Charge Density is defined as:

ρ ≡ (Q/V) (Units are C/m3)

Surface Charge Density
When a charge Q is distributed over a surface area A, the
Surface Charge Density is defined as:

σ ≡ Q/A (Units are C/m2)

Linear Charge Density
When a charge Q is distributed along a line ℓ , the
Linear Charge Density is defined as:

λ ≡ (Q/ℓ) (Units are C/m)

 Charge Density
• Line of charge: lQ/L
charge per unit length = l

• Sheet of charge: sQ/A

charge per unit area = s

• Volume of charge:
charge per unit volume = r rQ/V

When a charge Q is distributed uniformly (evenly), then

the charge densities (l,s,rare constants
Example 5: A rod of length L has a uniformly distributed
total negative charge -Q. Calculate the electric field at a point P
located a distance d below the rod, along an axis through the
center of and perpendicular to the rod.

-Q L Procedure:

P
(1) pick a dq of charge somewhere in the distribution
(2) draw in your diagram the dE due to that dq
(3) draw the components of dE
(4) for each component, check for simplifications due to symmetry,
then integrate over the charge distribution.
Calculate the electric field at a point P.
y
dq
-Q L Starting equation: dE = k 2
r
x
dq dE
d Pick a dq (best to not put
it at either end or in the
middle).
P
Draw the dE due to the dq.

Now draw the components.

Do you see why symmetry tells me that Ex = 0?

Calculate the electric field at a point P.
y

-Q L Ex = 0, so calculate Ey
x
x
dq dE
d First, label an angle  in
the vector diagram.

P dEy = +dE sin 

To find sin , we need the x-coordinate of dq. If dq is at an

arbitrary position along the x-axis, what is a good name for its
coordinate? That’s right, we’ll call it x.

The diagram is getting rather “busy,” but we are almost done

with it; don’t panic!.
Calculate the electric field at a point P.
y

-Q L
x
x
dq  dE
d

P

To find sin , look at the green triangle. The sides have length
x and d, and hypotenuse r, where
r= x2  d2

From the green triangle, we see that sin  = d / r.

Calculate the electric field at a point P.
y

-Q L
x
x
dq  dE
d

P

Now we start to put things together:

dq dq d d dq dq
dE y  dE sin   k 2 sin   k 2  k 3  kd
r r r r x  d 
2 2 3/2

To find Ey we simply integrate from one end of the rod to the

other (from –L/2 to +L/2).
Calculate the electric field at a point P.
y

-Q L
x
x
dq  dE
d

P

L2 d dq
Ey   k
L 2
x 2
d 
2 3/2

But wait! We are integrating over the rod, which lies along the
x-axis. Doesn’t there need to be a dx somewhere?
Calculate the electric field at a point P.
y

-Q
x
x
dq

I removed un-needed “stuff” from the figure.

dq is a tiny bit (chunk) of charge on the uniformly charged rod.

If the charge is uniformly distributed, then the amount of

charge per length of rod is
(charge) Q
(linear charge density) = or l
(length) L
Thus, dq = l dx, where dx is an infinitesimal length of rod that
lies along the x-axis
Calculate the electric field at a point P.
y
dx
-Q
x
x
dq
We can take l outside the integral
because the charge is uniformly
distributed, so l must be constant.

L2 dq L2 l dx L2 dx
Ey   kd  kd  kd l 
L 2
x 2
d 
2 3/2 L 2
x 2
d 
2 3/2 L 2
x 2
d 
2 3/2

Q L2 dx The physics of the problem is all

E y  kd 
L L 2
x 2
d 
2 3/2 done. The rest is “just” math!

If you want to explore a slightly different presentation of this at your leisure, try :
[Link]
Example 6 : A rod of length L has a uniform charge per unit
length l and a total positive charge Q. Calculate the electric field
at a point P along the axis of the rod a distance d from one end.
y

dE P dq x

d L
dq
We start with our usual equation: dE = k 2
r
The equation says pick a dq of charge, so do it!

Because dq is positive, its contribution to the electric field

points away from the rod.
 y
x
dE P dq x

d L

The electric field at point P has no y-component (why?). The rod has
no thickness.
Therefore, Ey=0.

The infinitesimal charge dq is a distance x away from the origin.

dq l dx l dx The – sign is
Therefore dE x = -k 2  -k 2
 -k 2 important!
x x x
 y
x
dE P dq x

d L

Now simply integrate over the rod.

dL l dx d  L dx
Ex =  dE x =  -k 2 = -kl 
rod d x d x2

 d  d  L 
dL
 1  1 1
E x = -kl    = kl    = kl  
 xd dL d  d d  L 
klL
Ex = -
d d  L
 y
x
dE P dq x

d L

The problem asks for the electric field at point P, thus the
complete answer is:
klL r klL ˆ
E y =0 Ex = - or E=- i
d d  L d d  L

How to validate your calculation? Use your intuition!

1. If d >> L, then E = ?

2. If d goes to 0, then E goes to ?

Example 7: A ring of radius a has a uniform charge per unit
length and a total positive charge Q. Calculate the electric field at
a point P along the axis of the ring at a distance x0 from its center.

y
dq Let’s add a y-axis to the
figure.
a r

 P Starting equation:
x
x0  dq
dE
dE=k 2
r

Pick a dq of charge. Let’s put it on the y-axis for now.

Show the dE due to that positive dq.

We’ll need r and  later.

 y
dq Show the x- and
y-components of dE.
a r There may also be a
dE′
 P z-component, which we’ll
x
x0  leave out because it is
r
dE difficult to draw and
dq′ visualize.

Consider the dq’ on the ring where it is intersected by the

negative y-axis.
dq’ gives rise to dE’ at P. Show the components of dq’.

All points on the ring are the same distance r from point P.
Also, x0 and  are the same for all points on the ring.

The y-components cancel pairwise! Same for the

z- components (not shown). Ey = Ez = 0.
 y
dq Back to our starting equation:

a r dq
dE=k 2
 P x r
x0 
dE x = +dE cos 
dE

x0
From the diagram: r = x a 2
0
2
cos  
r
For a given x0, r is a constant
for all points on the ring.

 dq  x 0 x0 x0 kx 0 Q
E x   dE x    k 2   k 3 ring d q  k r3 Q  x 2  a 2 3/2
ring ring 
r  r r  0 
 y
Thus the complete answer:

a kx 0 Q
Ex 
x0
P
E
x
x 2
0 a 
2 3/2

E y  Ez  0
r kx 0 Q
E ˆi These equations are only
or
x  a2  valid for P along the x-axis!
2 3/2
0

How to validate your calculation?

1. If x0 >> a, then E = ?
2. If x0 = 0, then E = ? Symmetry..!
If you want to explore a slightly different presentation of this at your leisure, try :
[Link]
(he leaves out a factor of a in several steps, but finds it in the end).
Example 8 : calculate the electric field at the center of a semicircular line
of uniformly-distributed positive charge, oriented as shown.

+Q

R
y

x
Example: calculate the electric field at center of semicircular
line of uniformly-distributed positive charge, oriented as shown.
+Q
Start with our usual equation:
dq
ds
d dq
R dE = k 2
y r
x Pick an infinitesimal dq of charge.

dq subtends an arc length ds, and an angle d.

What is the charge dq?

dq =  charge per length of arc    length of the arc 

dq = lds
Example: calculate the electric field at center of semicircular
line of uniformly-distributed positive charge, oriented as shown.
+Q
Draw the dE due to the dq, and
dq
ds
dq′ show its components.
d
R
y

Do you see any helpful symmetry?

xdE′ dE

Pick a dq′ horizontally across the arc from dq. The x-

components of dq and dq′ will cancel. Because of this
symmetry, Ex = 0

Each dEy points downward so Ey will be negative.

Example: calculate the electric field at center of semicircular
line of uniformly-distributed positive charge, oriented as shown.
+Q
Recall that dq and ds are
dq
ds infinitesimal. dq is located at an
dq angle  along the semicircle from
R
y  the negative y-axis.
x dE
  is also one of the angles in the
vector triangle.

dE y = -dE sin 
Example: calculate the electric field at center of semicircular
line of uniformly-distributed positive charge, oriented as shown.
+Q
An arc of a circle has a length
dq
ds equal to the circle radius times
dq the subtended angle (in radians):
R
y 
ds = R d
x dE

Also,

l=
 charge on arc   Q  Q
 length of arc  1  2R  R
2
 +Q
Let’s summarize what we have
dq
ds done so far.
dq
R dq
y  dE = k 2 dq = l ds
r
x dE
 Q
l= ds = R d
R

Every dq is a distance R away from the arc center: r=R

 Q 
l ds    R d
 R  Q d
dE = k 2 = k =k
R R 2
R 2

dE y = -dE sin 
 +Q
dq
ds kQ d
dE y = - sin 
dq R 2
R
y 

dE  kQ d 
x E y =  dE y =   - sin  
 
arc  
2
arc
R


kQ kQ  kQ
Ey = - 2
R arc sin  d = - R 2 0 sin  d = + R 2 cos  0

kQ kQ 2kQ
E y = + 2 cos   cos 0 = + 2  1  1 = - 2
R R R
If you want to explore a slightly different presentation of this at your leisure, try :
[Link]
Example 9 : Three charges +Q, +Q, and –Q, are located at the
corners of an equilateral triangle with sides of length a. What is
the force on the charge located at point P (see diagram)?
r
F   F1x  F2x  ˆi   F1y  F2y  ˆj
y
F1
P
 r
+Q
 F   F1 cos   F2 cos   ˆi
F2   F1 sin   F2 sin   ˆj
a
 Q Q Q2
F1  k k 2
=60
a2 a
+Q -Q
x
 Q  Q  Q2
F2  k k 2
a2 a
Note: if there is not a problem like this on the first Exam, there will be one on the Final!
Three charges +Q, +Q, and –Q, are located at the corners of
an equilateral triangle with sides of length a. What is the force
on the charge located at point P (see diagram)?

y r  kQ2 o ˆ
2
F1 kQ
F   2 cos 60  2 cos 60  i
o

P
  a a 
+Q
  kQ2 kQ 2
o ˆ
  2 sin 60  2 sin 60  j
o
F2
 a a 
a

+Q -Q
x

I could have stated that Fy=0 and Fx=2F1x by

symmetry, but I decided to do the full calculation here.
Three charges +Q, +Q, and –Q, are located at the corners of
an equilateral triangle with sides of length a. What is the force
on the charge located at point P (see diagram)?

y
F1 r kQ2
F  2 2 cos 60o ˆi
P a

+Q
 F
F2 r kQ2
F  2 ˆi
a a

+Q -Q
x
What is the electric field at P due to the two charges at the
base of the triangle?
You can “repeat” the above calculation,
y
replacing F by E (and using Coulomb’s Law).
r r
P Or you can be smart… F  qE

2
r kQ
r F î
a 2 kQ ˆ
E   2 i
a q Q a

This is the charge which had

+Q -Q been atr point P, “feeling” the
x force F.

r
Caution: never write q  E r . Why?
F
Example 10 : A rod is bent into an eighth of a circle of radius a,
as shown. The rod carries a total positive charge +Q uniformly
distributed over its length. What is the electric field at the origin?

y
dq
dE = k 2
r

x
a
A rod is bent into an eighth of a circle of radius a, as shown.
The rod carries a total positive charge +Q uniformly distributed
over its length. What is the electric field at the origin?

y dq dq
dE = k 2 = k 2
r a

dq charge
dq = l ds = ds
 length
 x
a
dE Q
dq = ds
 length of arc 
Q 4 Q
 
dq = ds = ds
2a a
8
A rod is bent into an eighth of a circle of radius a, as shown.
The rod carries a total positive charge +Q uniformly distributed
over its length. What is the electric field at the origin?

d
ds ds = a d

 x
a
dE
A rod is bent into an eighth of a circle of radius a, as shown.
The rod carries a total positive charge +Q uniformly distributed
over its length. What is the electric field at the origin?

y k  4  Q  
dE = 2    a d  
a  a  

dq dE x = - dE cos 

 x dE y = - dE sin 
a
dE

E x = -  4 dE cos 
0
1 
 2 =
 8 4

E y = -  4 dEsin 
0
A rod is bent into an eighth of a circle of radius a, as shown.
The rod carries a total positive charge +Q uniformly distributed
over its length. What is the electric field at the origin?

4k Q
dE = d
a 2

 4k Q 4k Q 
Ex =   cos  d =   cos  d
4 4
0 a 2
a 2 0

4k Q 4k Q
 

Ex =   sin  0 4
=  sin   sin 0
a 2 a 2 4

4k Q  2  2 2k Q
Ex =    0  = 
a 2  2  a 2
A rod is bent into an eighth of a circle of radius a, as shown.
The rod carries a total positive charge +Q uniformly distributed
over its length. What is the electric field at the origin?

4k Q
dE = d
a 2

 4k Q 4k Q 
Ey =   sin  d =   sin  d
4 4
0 a 2
a 2 0

4k Q 4k Q
 

Ey =    cos  0 4
=   cos   cos 0
a 2 a 2 4

4k Q  2  4k Q  2
Ey =     1 =  1  
a 2  2   a 2
 2 
A rod is bent into an eighth of a circle of radius a, as shown.
The rod carries a total positive charge +Q uniformly distributed
over its length. What is the electric field at the origin?

r  2 2kQ  ˆ  4kQ  2 ˆ

E =    i   2 1    j
 a   a 
2
2 

r 2kQ 
E=  2
a 
 2  ˆi   2  2  ˆj
You should provide reasonably simplified answers
on exams, but remember, each algebra step is a
chance to make a mistake.