AIRFRAMES, ENGINES AND SYSTEMS

Airframes

1. Types of construction;

i. Truss; They are made up of wood, wire brace, metal steel tubes, usually welded or

bolted together to form the frame. The load of the forces of the flight are carried

by the frame (the skin is not responsible for load bearing). Wires and angular

form significantly increase drag

ii. Monocoque; It consists of formers and bulkheads only to help with the shape. All

the stress is carried by the stressed skin

iii. Semi-monocoque; It consists of a series of round or oval formers or bulkheads

held together by stringers (long strips running lengthwise). The formers or

bulkheads carry the loads, the stringers being merely superstructure. A minimal

sub structures of stringers, formers and bulkheads assist with carrying stress loads

along with the skin

2. Handling/Care/Securing;

Landing gear, Brakes and Flaps

1. Mechanical; lever or crank

2. Hydraulic;

3. Electrical; motor turning a jackscrew

Engines

1. Two/Four stroke cycle;

Two Stroke Cycle; it differs from the four-stroke cycle in that it uses the crankcase as the

fuel mixture transfer pump.

i. First Stroke (Intake and compress); Charging the crankcase with fuel,

compression of the fuel charge and ignition takes place on the upward stroke of

the piston. On the upward stroke of the piston, a vacuum is created as the piston

goes down and fuel/air mixture is sucked into the crankcase through the intake

port (that is uncovered) from the carburetor. As the piston moves upward it seals

off the exhaust and intake port and compresses the fuel/air mixture.

ii. Second Stroke (Ignition and Exhaust); exhaust of the burned gasses and transfer

of the fuel to the cylinder take place on the downward stroke. Near the top of the

stroke, the spark plug fires the compressed mixture. The hot, burning and

expanding gases create the pressure that drives the piston down. The descending

piston seals off the intake port and uncovers the exhaust port opens and the

burned gases can escape. The piston moves up again and the cycle continues. The

top of the piston is shaped to act as a barrier and direct the fuel mixture away

from the exhaust port during the first stroke.

Four or Otto cycle (suck, squeeze, burn, blow)

i. Intake; The crankshaft pulls the piston down. This creates a vacuum or low

pressure in the cylinder pulling in a mixture of fuel and air.

 ii. Compression or Ignition; As the crankshaft continues to spin it pushes the piston

up which compresses the mixture. At the top of the stroke the mixture is ignited

with by an electric spark.

iii. Power; The ignition creates heat which causes the gases to expand and pushes the

piston down which rotates the crankshaft or forces a turbine wheel to spin.

iv. Exhaust; As the crankshaft spins it pushes the piston up which forces the exhaust

from the ignition out of the cylinder.

2. Methods of cooling;

a. Air cooled; there is

i. Engine cowling; it forms an envelope around the engine which forces air to

pass around and between the cylinders.

ii. Cylinder baffles; they are metal shields designed and arranged to direct the

flow of air evenly around all cylinders. This even distribution of air aids in

preventing one or more cylinders from being excessively hotter than the rest.

iii. Cylinder fins; they radiate heat from the cylinder walls and heads. As the air

passes over the fins through the engine cowl, it absorbs this heat, carries it

away from the cylinder and is exhausted overboard through any opening at the

rear of the cowling or cowl flaps

iv. Cowl flaps; these flaps are opened and closed by electric motor-driven

jackscrew by hydraulic actuators or manually in some aircrafts. They are

extended to increase the exit area for air from the cylinder fins which

effectively increases the amount of air that circulate over the cylinder fins to

increase engine cooling.

 v. Cooling fans; they are mounted on the front of the engine and are gear driven

from the engine crankshaft. They assist the flow of cooling air at high

altitudes where-flow of cooling air is becoming light.

vi. Shrouds; they are used to direct airflow into the engine compartment

vii. Augmenters; in some aircrafts the exhaust gases re directed through

augmenter tubes or jet pump which produce a suction strong enough to

increase the flow of cooling air past the cylinders. The augmenter tubes also

produce additional thrust sufficient to set-off the drag of the cooling air. This

good mostly for low speed, high climbs conditions (climb).

viii. Airspeed; increasing airspeed increases airflow over the engine and through

the oil cooler. Climbing at higher airspeed increases engine cooling, visibility

over the nose, cabin airflow and passenger comfort.

b. Water cooled;

c. Oil cooled; As oil circulates through the engine, it absorbs heat from the parts. Piston

and cylinder walls in reciprocating engine are especially dependent on the oil for

cooling.

d. Power settings; increase power increases the amount of heat which must be remove

by engine cooling.

e. Fuel mixture control; A rich mixture cools the engine internally as heat is absorbed to

vaporize the additional fuel. The excess fuel doesn’t produce heat because it isn’t

burned within the engine.

3. *Principle of the magneto; The magneto provides a high tension current to the spark plug

for ignition. Inside the magneto there is a permanent magnet (rotor) which is rotated by

an engine driven gear and the coil assemble which consist of iron core which has primary

and secondary coil or windings around an iron core. There also a hot wire from the

primary coil to ground and a high voltage tab from the secondary coil to the spark plugs.

As the magnet rotates, it induces a continuously changing flowing electric current in low

volt or low-tension current in the primary winding or coil which is made up of 200 turns

of heavy wire, in the iron core. When ignition is required, the hot wire is disconnected

and the flow of current is stopped and this causes the magnetic field to collapse suddenly

cutting across the secondary windings or coil which is made up of 20,000 turns of fine

wire. This induces a The secondary coil is … on the same iron core to form an electric

transformer. The transformer transforms the electric current from low tension current to

high tension current that creates a spark and the distributor is what distributes the spark to

the spark plugs. P lead grounds the one side of the low voltage winding to disable the

magneto (so that the magneto doesn’t use the low volt but waits for the high volt). If it

breaks the magneto will still run in the off position.

4. Dual ignition; The magnetos are two for backup, more power, efficiency and engine

performance. Each cylinder has two spark plugs and each spark plug is connected to each

magneto. That is the one spark plug to the right mag and the other to the left mag.

5. Exhaust system; The exhaust system of a reciprocating engine is basically a scavenging

system that collects the disposes of the high temperature, noxious gases including the

dangerous carbon monoxide that is discharged by the engine. Its main function is to

prevent the escape of this potential destructive gases into the airframe and cabin. The are
 three main types are stort stack system which controls the carburetor and cabin heat and

the collector system which is use to drive the turbine wheel for turbocharging and the

augmentor system which is used for augment engine cooling.

6. Ancillary controls

7. *Turbocharging; Turbochargers are designed to deliver compressed air to the inlet of the

carburetor or fuel/air control unit to exceed sea level pressure thus its critical altitude. The

job of the turbocharger is to supply the engine with dense air when the airplane is

operating in thin air at altitude. As the engine expels exhaust gases, it gets directed on the

turbine and spins it at high rpm. The turbine and centrifugal air compressor or impeller

are mounted on the same shaft so as the turbine spins, the compressor spins it forces more

air into the combustion chamber or intake manifold. The wastegate is what regulates the

amount of exhaust gas which is directed to the turbine and therefore regulates the speed

of the turbocharger at lower altitudes or lower power settings. When open, the exhaust

gas is vented around the turbine, into the atmosphere. When closed, the exhaust gas is

directed to the turbine wheel. This can be controlled manually or automatically.

8. *Effects of Density Altitude/Humidity;

i. Density Altitude; Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard

temperature. As temperature and altitude increase, air density decreases. In a

sense, it's the altitude at which the airplane "feels" its flying. On a hot and humid

day, the aircraft will accelerate more slowly down the runway, will need to move

faster to attain the same lift, and will climb more slowly. The less dense the air,

the less lift, the more lackluster the climb, and the longer the distance needed for

takeoff and landing. Fewer air molecules in a given volume of air also result in
 reduced propeller efficiency and therefore reduced net thrust. All of these factors

can lead to an accident if the poor performance has not been anticipated.

9. Limitations of operations

10. Instruments

11. Principle of diesel engines; Unlike the gasoline engine, the diesel engine doesn’t require a

spark from a spark plug to ignite the fuel. Instead it uses the heat from the piston’s

compression of air into the top of the cylinder. Diesels, therefore, require no separate

electric ignition source or a carburetor or a mixture control. It has a very high

compression ratio (to ignite the fuel) and has a four-stroke cycle and is fuel injected

under high pressure.

12. Principles of turbine engine; A jet engine produces a high speed jet at the exit. The higher

the speed of the jet the greater the thrust force. And the thrust force from the tail of the

engine makes the aircraft move forward. Hence, newton’s third law of motion; for every

action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

 Turbofan; it consist of a fan, compressor, combustor and turbine sections. Air

entering through the fan blades and some of the air passing through the blades is

accelerated backwards on the outside of the engine providing extra thrust for

quieter operations known as by pass air. From the fan, air is directed to the

compressor. Compression happens in stages that force incoming air into an

increasingly narrow chamber. A single compressor stage is comprised of a

spinning rotor paired with a ring of stationary stator vanes which are attached to

the core casing. Rotor blades swirl the air as they force it through the compressor.

Stator vanes slow this swirling momentum in exchange for increased air pressure.
 The compressor has four low pressure and ten high pressure stages. Compressed

air makes for much more powerful combustion reaction relative to engine size.

The compressed high pressure air is taken into the combustor where it is mixed

with fuel and ignited as it passes through the combustor, releasing a jet of super

high powered gas. Compressed air enters the inlet nozzles. Each nozzle is coupled

with a fuel injector and is designed to swirl the incoming fuel and air for an even

mix. A couple of ignitor plugs, ignite this mixture and the reaction spreads evenly

around the annular combustor. Turbines at the rear of the jet engine are powered

by exhaust gasses existing the combustor. Much of the turbine power is used to

turn the fan while a smaller percentage powers the compressor stages. Turbine air

gets extremely hot so some air from the compressor is diverted for cooling and

special coating are to keep temperatures down.

13. Engine handling/Care

14. Full Authority Digital engine control (FADEC); FADEC systems respond to pilot inputs,

but also use data from sensors reading engine temperatures, engine pressure, fuel flow,

air density, and much more to automatically adjust engine settings to optimize

performance. They are also self-monitoring, include system redundancy to prevent

failures, and allow programmable engine limitations. Because they are digital, FADEC

systems are also lighter, less bulky, and require less maintenance than older control

systems, improving fuel efficiency, reducing maintenance costs, and allowing more

aircraft innovation
Carburation

1. Theory of operation; Fuel is delivered from the tanks to the carburetor through fine mesh

wire screen into the float bowl. This float bowl is vented so the pressure in the bowl

equalizes with the atmospheric pressure as the planes climbs or descends. A needle valve

operated by the float in the float bowl keeps the fuel in the bowl at a constant level. As

fuel is used from the bowl, the float tends to drop opening the valve allowing more fuel to

enter the bowl. A venturi is special shaped restriction placed in the main air passage.

Located in the center of the venturi with its end near the narrowest part of the venturi is

the discharge nozzle. This nozzle is connected to the float bowl. As the airflow for the

engine passes through this venturi-shaped restrictor, its speed is increased which causes a

corresponding decrease in pressure. Thus, the greater the airflow into the engine the

faster the air must flow through the venturi as compared to ambient pressure. As air flows

through the venturi the pressure at the discharge nozzle drops below that in the float

bowl, causing fuel to flow out the nozzle to the venturi to vaporize and mix with the air

which enters the intake manifold or directly to the cylinders. The amount that goes into

the intake manifold or directly to the cylinders is controlled by the pilot with the throttle

which controls the butterfly valve.

2. Fuel-air mixture/Mixture Controls; As altitude increases a given volume of air weighs

less. It is obvious then that at higher altitudes, the proportion of air by weight to that of

fuel will become less although the volume remains the same. The mixture then becomes

over-rich causing a waste of fuel and loss of power. A mixture control is used to control

this condition. Rich mixtures cools the engine. Types of mixture control;
 i. A needle valve; when the mixture control knob is moved fully forward, the needle

valve retracts and allows fuel to flow freely to the nozzle. When the knob is

moved aft, the needle moves into the fuel line to restrict the flow of fuel.

ii. Back suction system; A back suction pipe is interconnected to the air space in the

float bowl to the reduced pressure area in the venturi. Closing the mixture control

valve restricts the atmospheric pressure entering the float bowl and the back

suction passage reduce the pressure in the bowl which forces less fuel through the

nozzle and leans the mixture.

3. *Carburetor Icing; from -5oC to 30oC. it usually indicated by a loss in power

Conditions

i. Low pressure from venturi; This type of ice is called impact ice. Usually occurs

when water vapor in the induction air condenses and freezes due to the expansion

cooling and lower pressure as the air passes a near or a partly closed throttle

valve.

ii. Fuel vaporization; This happens when there is a drop in temperature as heat is

taken from the air in order to effect vaporization of the fuel. Fuel must be changed

to into a vapor and mixed with air to become combustible. This cooling process

takes place in the aircraft induction system when the heat necessary for fuel

vaporization is taken from the surrounding air, thus cooling the air. Since the air is

cooler it holds less water vapor. The excess water is precipitated in the form of

condensation and further vaporization freezes the condensate on any structure that

lies in the path of the condensate at the time of freezing.

4. *Use of carb heat and its effect on mixture; The application of carburetor heat richens the

mixture. Carburetor heat increases the induction air temperature causing it to be denser.

This decreases the number of molecules that can be packed into a cylinder, thus

increasing power output, increasing the fuel:air ratio causing the mixture to richen.

Fuel Injection

1. Principle and operation; A fuel injected engine produces slightly more power and use less

fuel than a carbureted engine of equal displacement and compression ratio. This system

deposits a continuous flow of fuel into the induction system near the intake valve of each

cylinder during the intake stroke. The fuel vaporizes in this warm environment then is

sucked into the cylinder during the intake stroke. The components of a fuel injection

system are fuel pumps, fuel control unit, a fuel manifold valve and a fuel discharge

nozzle. The fuel pump pumps fuel into the fuel control unit. Then the fuel control unit

regulates the specific amount of fuel needed based on the mixture and throttle settings.

The fuel then gets sent to the fuel manifold valve where it is dispersed and heads to the

nozzles of each cylinder. This time the fuel does not mix with the air until immediately

before entering the combustion chamber

2. Icing; Vapour Lock

3. Alternate air; this is to prevent manifold air starvation caused by a air filter blockage or

by when foreign materials like dirt, snow or freezing rain are injected into the induction

system. Activating this will shut off the ramp air inlet and at the same time takes

unfiltered air from inside the cowling, directing it to the ejected air body throat.
Electrical system

1. Generator/Alternator/Battery;

a. Alternator; It is driven by an engine through an alternator belt which generates

electricity for the entire system. This is the primary means of powering the electrical

system during normal operations with the engine running and also charger’s the

battery. A voltage regulator will allow the alternators generated power to charge the

battery and power the system with an acceptable voltage by stabilizing the output of

the alternator.

b. Battery; it is mainly used to start the engine. It can be used run the electrical system

when the engine is not running

c. Generator; similar to an alternator but produces DC

2. Lighting

3. Master/Alternator/Generator switches

4. Ammeter/load meter; a pilot can monitor the electrical system by either an ammeter or

load meter. An ammeter shows the performance of the electrical system. If the alternator

is providing sufficient power to the electrical system and is charging the battery, then the

ammeter will show a charge. If the battery is being used instead of the alternator, there

will be a negative charge. A zero indication will mean it is neither charging or

discharging the battery. A loadmeter shows the load that is being placed on the alternator

so if the alternator’s load is 40 amps, then the loadmeter will show 40. If the loadmeter

shows zero, then either the alternator is off or has failed.

5. Bus bars; A metal strip where all aircraft circuits and a positive battery terminal circuit

breakers are usually connected directly to the busbar. The components of an electrical

system are usually divided into several buses to prevent a possible electrical fire. (e.g the

main bus can contain lights etc while the avionic bus can contain radios, electric flight

instruments etc).

6. Circuit Breakers/Fuse; They protect the wires in the electrical system. The circuit

breakers are resettable while the fuses can only be used once. They pop when there is

excessive voltage which results from high heat in the electrical wire

7. Grounding/Bonding; bonding can be done with a bonding strap. This is used to

electrically bond control surfaces to the airframe. To prevent any static discharge or

lighting strike from damaging the control surfaces or bearing. Electrical grounding is a

backup pathway that provides an alternating route for the current to flow back to the

ground if there is a fault in the wiring system like an electrical overload from lighting. By

grounding the electrical system, all the excess electricity is taken away from the electrical

system to prevent an electrical fire.

Lubricating Systems and oils

1. Types – Viscosity/Grades/Seasonal Use;

i. Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flow. Easy flowing = low viscosity and

proper distribution of oil throughout the engine. The oil temperature gauge would

indicate higher engine temperatures when the oil is less viscous.

ii. Grade; higher grade for summer (thick) and lower grade for winter (thin). For

multigrade oil its use for any season.

2. Purposes;

i. Clean

ii. Seal and cushion

iii. Absorb heat and cool;

iv. Prevent corrosion

v. Reduce friction

3. Methods of lubrication;

i. Splash Method (wet sump); the oil located in a tank at the base of the engine this

makes it an integral part of the engine. Oil leaves sump to the strainer screen then

it goes to the gear pump which receives power from the engine through a belt and

pulley arrangement. Then the oil goes to the pressure relief regulator to regulate

the oil pressure. After that, the oil goes to the oil cooler. If the oil is cool enough,

then it is bypass the cooler but if the oil congeals in the cooler, the thermostatic

oil cooler by pass valve opens. Then the oil goes to the filter. If the oil filter is

plugged, the oil filter by pass valve opens. The oil is then sent to the engine for

lubrication, cooling and cleaning then gravity pulls it back to the sump.

ii. Force feed/Pressure method (dry sump); there is a separate oil tank. All oil that

accumulates in a various parts of the engine under pressure from a pressure pump

through a hollow crankshaft which is immediately scavenged back to a separate

oil tank but before that passes through an oil cooler and a filter. It requires at least

two oil pumps one to scavenge and one to pressurize/recirculate.

4. Venting; the oil tanks are vented to maintain atmospheric pressure within the tank.

During a normal flight the oil tank is vented to the engine crankcase by a flexible line at
 the top of the tank . however during inverted flight, the normal vent is covered or

submerged below the oil level within the tank. Therefore, a secondary vent and check

valve arrangement is incorporated in the tank for invented operation. During an inversion,

when air in the oil tank reaches a certain pressure the check valve in the secondary vent

line will unseat and allow air to escape from the tank. This assures an uninterrupted flow

of oil to the engine

5. Filters; prevent dirty oil with contaminants.

6. Pressure Relief; Pressure relief or regulator regulate the oil pressure. This is incorporated

into the pump to ensure a steady pressure during all phrases of engine operation.

7. Oil cooler; it is necessary to keep the oil temperature in an operating engine between

certain well defined limits because the lubrication of the engine depends on the viscosity

of the oil.

Fuel systems and Fuels

1. *Types – color/Properties

Type Color Properties

80 (80/87) Red Has an octane rating of 80 when lean and
87 when rich and 0.5 ml of lead per gallon
100 (100/130) Green Has an octane rating of 100 when lean and
130 when rich and 4.0 ml of lead per
gallon
100 LL Blue 2.0 ml of lead per gallon.
Jet A or A1 Straw Pure kerosene, very low volatility, very
resistant to explosion, freezes between -40
and -47.
Jet B Straw Gasoline/ kerosene blend, more volatile
than Jet A/A1 but still not as explosive as
just gasoline, freezes at -50
Diesel Straw A more refined version of jet fuel.
 MOGAS (automobile Clear No lead and very volatile.
gasoline)

Octane rating; This is the fuel’s resistance to detonation. The higher the number, the

higher the resistance and the more the lead. Lead helps to lubricate the valves but too

much of lead can get quite poisonous and lead to fouling of spark plugs.

2. Density/Weight

3. Additives; Anti-ice additives lower the freezing point of the fuel.

4. Contamination and deterioration; dirt, ice crystals, other gunk, static sparks and water.

5. Tank location

6. Venting/Baffling; fuel tanks are vented to maintain atmospheric pressure within the tank.

7. Fuel line – filters/Drains; strainers are installed in the tank outlets and often in the tank

filler necks, the carburetor fuel inlets and in the fuel lines to prevent any foreign matter

from entering the carburetor and to trap small amounts of water that may be present in the

system. Usually a drain is provided at the lowest point of the tank through which water

and sediment which are heavier than fuel and settle to the lowest point of the fuel tank

can be drained.

8. Detonation/Pre-ignition – causes/effects;

Detonation; This is uncontrolled burning of the fuel; the fuel ignites and burn too quickly

because of the heat and pressure in the cylinder. The symptoms are rapidly increasing

CHT but slowly decreasing EGT, low RPM and excessive vibration.

Causes; lack of lead in the fuel which can be caused by using fuel with a low octane ie,

the wrong grade of fuel AND excessively high CHTs which can be caused by lean
 mixture, lack of engine cooling, low speed and high rpm, slow combustion and high

ambient temperature temp with high power.

Effect; The fuel/air mixture burns 90-120 times faster than normal combustion and the

explosive force of detonation will destroy the piston head and cylinder head within

seconds.

Pre-ignition; This is pre-mature ignition of the fuel/air mixture in the cylinder before the

spark.

Causes; This is caused by too much lead or carbon creating hotspots. This can result from

a rich mixture for a long period, high CHTs etc.

Effect; it leads to detonation.

9. Vapor lock; Vaporization of fuel in in the fuel lines in places other than the intake valve.

This prevents the fuel from flowing freely and eventually lead to fuel starvation. It is

caused by heat from the engine if the fuel lines are running close to the exhaust system

like fuel injection or close to the engine and influenced by factors such as temperature

rise, pressure drop, air leakage and volatility ( how readily the fuel will vaporize). To

counteract it reduce throttle and descend, increase mixture, fly straight and level then find

smooth air if possible if not land.

10. Fuel heater;

11. Primers; use to pump fuel into the engine prior to starting. Overpriming the engine may

flood the engine, make it hard to start and possibly cause a fire.

12. Fuel management – Ground/Air

13. *Fuel handling – Fuelling Aircraft

14. *Grounding/bonding
Other Aircraft Systems

1. Oxygen

2. Vacuum

3. Pressurization; Cabin pressurization is the maintenance of a cabin altitude lower than the

actual flight altitude. This accomplished by compressing air in the aircraft cabin.

4. De-icing/Anti-icing systems;

 Anti-icing systems; this prevents the formation of ice which may be done by

heating the surface or the component with hot air, engine oil or electric current

and or coating the surface with an anti-icing agent such as alcohol or ethylene

glycol. Anti-icing systems are not usually capable of removing ice once it has

formed.

 De-icing systems; this system remove the ice after it has formed by the use of

pneumatic deicer boots and/or heated leading edges or wings and tails.

5. Environmental systems

Flight Instruments

Pitot static system

1. Pitot; this is dynamic air pressure that is caused by moving air.

2. Static; this is ambient static air pressure that is pressure of non-moving air just outside the

aircraft.

3. Anti-icing

4. Alternate Static – source/errors; the alternate source valve is located on or under the

instrument panel and for unpressurized aircraft, the alternate air the picked up from

behind the instrument panel. On the pressurized aircraft, the alternate air is taken from

some portion of the fuselage outside of the pressure vessel. ERRORS; In an

unpressurized aircraft the airspeed indicator will be higher than the normal ASI

indications when the alternate static source is used.

Airspeed Indicator

1. Principles of operation; the airspeed indicator is connected to both the pitot and static

pressure source. The ASI has an air tight case in which a thin metal bellow which works

like a balloon and is called an aneroid capsule which is connected to the pitot tube and is

the entry for dynamic air and the static port which is the entry for static air. Air from the

static port goes into the case and both the pitot and static air goes into the bellow or

aneroid. The aneroid expands or contracts in proportion to the difference between the

pitot( dynamic plus atmospheric pressure) and static pressure. As both the static pressure

in the aneroid and case are equal, anytime the aneroid expands or contracts, it will be due

to the dynamic pressure only. This expansion is what produces the changes in airspeed.

For example; in a climb the atmospheric pressure is less than in a descend so the pitot

pressure will decrease and the ASI will subtract the pressure in the static system and give
 a reading of the dynamic pressure. Hence the aneroid contracts and the ASI will produce

a less figure.

2. *Errors/Malfunctions;

a. Instrument error; this mechanical error due to the friction of the working parts of the

instrument.

b. Position error; this is from the angle at which the pitot pressure source or the static

pressure source meets the airflow or the eddies that are formed as the air passes over the

wings, structs and body of the aircraft.

c. Density error; the AIS is calibrated at standard sea level pressure, temperature and

density, changes in any of these factors may lead to an error in the TAS.

d. Blockage in pitot or static port; ice, water and dirt can all lead to the blockage of the

pitot static system. The use of pitot heat can solve this problem. If the static port is

blocked, the higher you go (in a climb) your airspeed will underread and the lower you

go (in a descent), your airspeed will overread. If the pitot port is blocked, the higher you

go the higher your airspeed will read and the lower you go the lower your airspeed will

read.

3. Markings;

4. Definitions -IAS/CAS/TAS

i. IAS; This is the uncorrected reading from the AIS

ii. CAS; This is IAS corrected for instrument error and installation error

iii. TAS; This is CAS corrected for the AIS error due to temperature and density. In

other words, it is IAS corrected for temperature and altitude.

Vertical speed indicator

1. Principles of operation; The VSI uses the rate of change of static pressure to indicate a

rate of climb or descend. It is an airtight instrument case with a pressure sensing aneroid

capsule a metering unit or capillary tube inside in case which are both fed with static air.

Inside the metering unit is a restrictive choke and its purpose is to slow down the rate at

which static pressure can change within the airtight instrument case. In level flight, static

air pressure on each side of the choke will be equal however the static pressure will

change as altitude changes. Any change will be sensed immediately by the aneroid but

the static pressure change in the instrument will be much slower because of the restrictive

choke. This causes a pressure differential which will be maintained while the aircraft is

climbing or descending. The rate at which the altitude is changing will be reflected by the

size of the pressure differential. Once the aircraft is in level flight the pressures will

equalize after a few seconds and the VSI reading will return to zero

2. *Errors/Malfunctions;

a. Instrument error; this is mechanical error due to manufacturing imperfections and

the friction of the working parts of the instrument.

b. Position error; this may occur as a result of suction and turbulent airflow around

the static port.

c. Induced error; this occurs as a result of short term fluctuations in the pressure at

the static source during attitude changes

 d. Blockage error; if a blockage occurs in a climb or descend, the VSI will gradually

return to zero as the differential pressure equalizes. If the blockage occurs in level

flight, the VSI will read zero during a subsequent climb or descend.

3. Lag; A change in altitude must occur before the VSI can indicate such a change. There is

a lag of from 6 – 9 seconds before it will indicate the correct rate of climb or descend as it

takes a few seconds for the pressure differential to become established in the climb or

descend. There will also be a lag in leveling out as the pressures in the aneroid and in the

case equalize

Altimeter/Encoding altimeter

1. Principles of operation; The altimeter has an air tight case in which a thin metal bellow

which works like a balloon and is called an aneroid capsule in installed. Pressure in

aneroid is standard and sealed. Air from the static system enters the case and causes the

aneroid to expand or contract. As you climb higher, pressure in the case decreases and the

aneroid expands. This expansion of the aneroid transmits motion directly to gears and

levers which rotate hands on the face of the altimeter. Hence an increase in altimeter.

2. *Errors/Malfunctions;

a. Altimeter pressure error; since the barometric pressure varies from place to place, the

altimeter has to be adjusted with the current altimeter settings. If not when flying

from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure, the altimeter overreads and

you are relatively lower than the indicated altitude. When flying from an area of

lower pressure to area of higher pressure, the altimeter underreads and you relatively

higher than the indicated altitude.

 b. Altimeter temperature error; since temperature varies from stations, the altimeter has

be to be adjusted to indicate the true altitude. If not, when flying from a warm area to

a cold area, the altimeter overreads and you are relatively lower. When flying from a

cold area to a warm area, the altimeter underreads and you are relatively higher.

c. Instrument error; this is mechanical error due to manufacturing imperfections and the

friction of the working parts of the instrument.

d. Position error; this may occur as a result of suction and turbulent airflow around the

static port.

e. Maneuver induced error; this occurs as a result of short term fluctuations in the

pressure at the static source during attitude changes or yaw.

f. Lag; occurs during higher rates of climb or descend.

g. Mountain effect; it combines the worst of both pressure and temperature. There is

usually a low pressure when flying over the mountains causing the altimeter to

overread.

Radio/Radar Altimeter

1. Principles of operation; A radio transmitter in the airplane sends a signal towards the

earth whose frequency at a definite rate with respect to time. This signal is reflected to

earth and returns as an echo after a time interval equal to twice the height divided by the

velocity of the signal. During the interval, the frequency of the transmitter has changed

and now differs from that of the echo by the rate of change frequency times the time of

transit. The reflected wave is combined with some of the outgoing wave in the airplane

receiver and the difference or “beat” frequency is measured by a frequency meter. Since
 the reading of the meter is that of the beat frequency, it is proportional to the time delay

of the echo and hence to the height and can thus be calibrated in feet.

2. Limitations

Direct Reading Magnetic Compass

1. Principles of operation; A magnetic compass uses the horizontal component of the earth’s

magnetic field to indicate the direction over the surface of the earth of the magnetic poles

and the aircraft heading is based on this magnetic datum. The H force acting horizontally

tends to hold the needle level and the vertical Z force acting vertically, tends to pull the

seeking end of the needle down. A freely suspended magnet under the influence of a

large directional H force and small vertical Z force, would lie parallel to the earth’s

surface. It consist of a circular compass card attached directly to the magnet assembly

consisting of two magnets which is suspended in liquid to prevent oscillations caused by

turbulence and reduce the weight of the compass card and magnets carried by the pivot.

The magnet system is mounted on a pivot to compensate for magnetic dip and is free to

rotate and the whole assembly is mounted within a compass bowl. A vertical lubber lying

on a glass window in compass casing enables the heading to be read off the compass card

2. Magnetic dip; The earth’s lines of forces are horizontal at the equator but become vertical

towards the poles. This causes the compass to tend to dip in higher latitudes. This is only

noticeable when close to the poles.

3. Variation; The angle between a line from your position to magnetic north and true north

(also called declination). The difference between the location of the geographic north-

south poles and the magnetic north-south poles.

4. Factors adversely affecting compass operation

5. Reading the compass

6. Deviation; The angle through which the compass needle is deflected from the magnetic

north is called deviation. It is caused by the magnetic fields in the aircraft interfering with

those on earth.

7. Compass correction card; After the error has been minimized, a dated chart is made of the

error that remains which is mounted on the compass bracket or on the instrument panel

adjacent to the compass so the pilot will be able to apply the correction in flight.

8. Turning and acceleration errors;

i. northerly turning error; the compass lags when turning away from the north

and it leads when turning away from the south turns. (NALAG)

ii. Apparent turns; not turning but the compass indicates a turn.

iii. Acceleration error; this is due to the mass of the magnets being under the

pivot. On east and west headings, Acceleration causes the compass to register

a turn towards the North. On east and west headings, Deceleration causes the

compass to register a turn towards the South. (WE-ANDS)

9. Compass serviceability checks

10. Compass swinging – frequency/Basic methods; to compensate for the deviation errors, a

procedure called swinging the compass. A compass is swung on a compass swinging base

located remote from any magnetic influence. Magnetic bearings, every 30o, are laid out

on the base and the airplane is lined up with each bearing and the compass heading

compared with each in turn. The compass is fitted with corrector magnets which are

permanently installed and connected by gears. They are located in the top bottom of the
 compass case and are adjusted by screws. As the compass is swing, the screws are

adjusted to eliminate all the deviation.

11. Checking compass heading on the ground and in flight

Gyroscope

1. Principles of operation; the gyroscope provides a stable reference datum which is

unaffected by the manoeuvres of the aircraft. As well as a heading or direction reference,

gyros can also provide an attitude reference. It consist of a spinning disc called a rotor

which spins around a shaft called the axis. The gyros can spin on either its horizontal axis

or vertical axis.

2. Inertia/ Rigidity in space; This is the ability of a spinning rotor to maintain its axis in a

fixed direction in space unless subjected to an external force. It is caused by the inertia of

the spinning mass of the rotor. In order for the gyro to maintain its rigidity, it is mounted

in a suspension system known as a gimbal ring or gimbal. Inertia is affected by 3 factors,

namely;

 The rotor mass; an increase in mass leads to an increase in the rigidity

 The radius in which the mass acts;

 The speed of the rotation; increasing the speed of rotation leads to an increase

in the rigidity in space.

3. Precession; if an external force is applied to change the direction of the rotor spin axis,

the gyro resists the change and instead moves the force 90o from the direction it originally

applied. This is called precession.

Heading Indicator

1. Principles of operation; The gyro wheel or rotor in the heading indicator is mounted

vertically and spins about its horizontal axis. The gyro rotor is mounted on the inner

gimbal on bearings mounted in the outer gimbal which rotates freely on the aircraft’s

vertically axis on bearings within the case of the instrument. The rotor spin axis and the

outer gimbal axis are mutually at right angles to each other. In a turn, the aircraft and card

compass rose turns arounds the vertically axis bearing of the outer gimbal while the rotor

axis remains fixed in azimuth because of rigidity in space.

2. Errors/Malfunctions;

 Mechanical precession error; frictional forces in the gyro cause it to precess.

This precession causes a creep of drift in the reading on the card, amounting

to approximately 3o in 15 mins.

 Apparent precession; Gyroscopic inertia keeps the spinning gyro fixed in

space so that, relative to space, it does not move. But the earth rotating

underneath gives it an apparent motion relative to the earth. This causes an

apparent drift or precession which varies with latitude. At the equator apparent

precession is zero. At the poles apparent precession is 15o per hour.

3. Limitations;

4. Power sources;

i. Engine driven vacuum system; Air pressure differential is the principle on

which this works. A vacuum pump run by the airplane engine creates a

partial vacuum in the system. A filtered air inlet upstream of the gyros
 allow air to rush into the system causing the gyro wheels to spin. The

gyro instruments require a suction from 4 – 6 inches of mercury to

operate. If there is not enough suction, the gyros will not spin fast enough

for reliable operation. If there is too much suction, excessive of the gyros

bearing will result from the gyros spinning too fast.

ii. Venturi driven vacuum system; in this case a venturi is used instead of a

vacuum pump. The venturi tubes are usually mounted on the side of the

airplane in a position to be in the airflow from the propeller. As the

airflow enters the constriction of the venturi, the velocity of the airflow

increases. A low pressure area is created within the venturi that results In

a partial vacuum in the line leading from the venturi to the gyro

instruments.

5. Slaved compass system/Slaved HIS/RMI

Attitude Indicator

1. Principles of operation; in the attitude indicator the gyro wheel is mounted horizontally

and spins on its vertical axis. It is mounted in a universal gimbal ring system free about

both the pitching and rolling axes of the plane and is therefore able to remain spinning in

a horizontal plane parallel to the true horizon, regardless of the rolling or pitching

movements of the airplane around it. The horizon bar is attached by a pivoted arm to the

gimbal ring and remains parallel to the natural horizon. The relationship of the miniature

airplane to the horizon bar is the same as the relationship of the actual airplane to the

actual horizon.
2. *Errors/Malfunctions;

 Any force that disturbs the free rotation of the gyro will cause errors in the

indications presented by the attitude indicator. Poorly balanced components,

clogged filters, improperly adjusted valves, pump malfunctions, friction and worn

parts will result in erratic and inaccurate indications.

3. Limitations;

1. Up to 90o bank and 70o pitch. Beyond that it gets more force than it can take. The

gyro should be caged during maneuvers that would exceed these limitations.

2. Accelerating or decelerating dramatically; causes reversal error.

4. Power sources

Turn and bank indicator/Turn co-ordinator

1. *Principles of operation; the rate gyro axis is inclined to the fore and aft axis of the

aircraft by approximately 35o angle. This makes the gyro sensitive to aircraft roll or bank

as well as to yaw or turn.

2. *Errors/Malfunctions

3. Limitations;

4. Power sources;

 Electrical driven gyros; Alternating current from the engine driven alternators

or generators provides the power to drive the gyros.

Electronic flight instrument system (EFIS)

Instrument flying
1. Loss of visual reference

2. The control and performance instruments

3. Instrument scan/Interpretation

4. Aircraft control

5. Partial panel

6. Unusual attitudes/Recoveries