UNIT II (REAL POWER-FREQUENCY CONTROL)

PART A
1. What is meant by tie line with bias control? (A/M-16)
Tie line bias control is based upon the principle that all operating pool members must contribute their
share to frequency control in addition to taking care of their own interchange.

2. What is area control error? (A/M-16)

Area Control error is the change in area frequency which when used in integral control loop
forced the steady state frequency error to zero.

3. Explain the term ‘Control Area’ (N/D-16) (A/M-17) (N/D-15)

It is possible to divide an extended power system into sub-areas in which the generators are
tightly coupled together so as to form a coherent group. Such a coherent group is called a
control area in which the frequency is assumed to be the same throughout in static as well as
dynamic conditions.

4. Specify the use of static and dynamic response of the ALFC loop (N/D-16)
The static response of the ALFC loop yielded important information about frequency accuracy. The
dynamic response of the loop will inform about ‘tracking’ ability and stability of the loop

5. What is the need for integral controller in ALFC? (A/M-17)

(i) For integral controller gain in the subcritical range i.e.,K1< Ki critical, system is over damped
and zero steady state error is achieved , after long time.

(ii) From the response characteristics, observe that initial response with integral controller is just
the same as without integral controller. After a small period only the controller becomes
effective and depending on the value of integral controller gain frequency error is minimized.
Higher the gain, quicker the actions after initial drop in frequency.

6. What are the types of ALFC for interconnected power system? (N/D-17)

Speed changer and speed governor

7. What is the advantage of AVR loop over ALFC loop? (N/D-15)

AVR loop is much faster than the ALFD loop and therefore there is a tendency, for the
AVR dynamics to settle down before they can make themselves felt in the slower load –
frequency control channel.

8. What is AGC? (N/D-11)

Abbreviated as AGC, automatic gain control is a circuit found on some electronic devices that
automatically controls the gain of a signal. Using AGC means that weaker signals receive more
gain and stronger signals receive less gain or none at all.

[Link] are the assumptions made in dynamic response of uncontrolled case (M/J-14)

1) Neglect turbine and governor dynamics

2) The speed changer action is instantaneous.

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 3) The speed governor response is instantaneous

10. What is the need of parallel operation of alternators? (N/D-11)

1) Local or regional power use may exceed the power of a single available generation.

2) The speed of the incoming allows one or more units to be shut down for scheduled or emergency
maintenance while the load is being supplied with power.

11. What are the functions of ALFC? (M/J-13)

The basic role of ALFC is to maintain desired megawatt output of a generator unit and assist in
controlling the frequency of the larger interconnection. The ALFC also helps to keep the net interchange
of power between pool members at predetermined values. Control should be applied in such a fashion
that highly differing response characteristics of units of various type (hydro, nuclear, fossil, etc.) are
recognized. Also, unnecessary power output changes should be kept to a minimum in order to reduce
wear of control values.

12. Define speed droop. (M/J-2013)

In electrical power generation, droop speed control is a speed control mode of a prime mover driving a
synchronous generator connected to an electrical grid. This mode allows synchronous generators to run in
parallel, so that loads are shared among generators in proportion to their power rating.

13. Differentiate static and dynamic response of an ALFC loop.

(i) Static response of an ALFC loop will inform about frequency accuracy.
(ii) The dynamic response of an ALFC loop will inform about the stability of the loop.

PART B
1. How is speed governor mechanism modeled? Explain its operations with the speed load
characteristic? (N/D-16) (N/D-15) (A/M-15)
(or)
Derive the modeling of functional speed governing system.

Automatic Load Frequency Control

 The ALFC is to control the frequency deviation by maintaining the real power balance in the system.
The main functions of the ALFC are to i) to maintain the steady frequency; ii) control the tie-line
flows; and iii) distribute the load among the participating generating units. The control (input)
signals are the tie-line deviation ΔPtie (measured from the tie- line flows), and the frequency
deviation Δf (obtained by measuring the angle deviation Δδ). These error signals Δf and ΔPtie a r e
amplified, mixed and transformed to a real power signal, which then controls the valve position.

 Depending on the valve position, the turbine (prime mover) changes its output power to establish the
real power balance. The complete control schematic is shown in Fig

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SPEED GOVERNING MECHANISM

The Schematic representation of ALFC system

Block Diagram Representation Of The Generator

Block Diagram Representation of The Generator And Load

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 Turbine Model.

Block Diagram Representation Of The Governor

A Complete block diagram of ALFC

2. Explain the static and dynamic characteristics of the primary ALFC loop. (A/M-17) (N/D-17)
(or)
With a neat block diagram, explain the single area load frequency control system with different modules.

 The static response of the ALFC loop yielded important information about frequency accuracy.

 The dynamic response of the loop will inform about ‘tracking’ ability and stability of the loop

All the individual blocks can now be connected to represent the complete ALFC loop as

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Power Generation
We have
ΔPG(s) = kGkt/ (1+sTG)(1+sTt)[ΔPc(s)-1/RΔF(s)]
The generator is synchronized to a network of very large size. So, the speed or frequency will be
essentially independent of any changes in a power output of the generator
ie, ΔF(s) =0
Therefore ΔPG(s) =kGkt / (1+sTg) (1+sTt)* ΔPc(s)

Steady state response

(i)Controlled case:
To find the resulting steady change in the generator output:
Let us assume that we made a step change of the magnitude ΔPc of the speed changer
For step change, ΔPc(s) = ΔPc/s
ΔPG(s) =kGkt/ (1+sTg) (1+sTt). ΔPc(s)/s
sΔPG (s) =kGkt/ (1+sTg) (1+sTt). ΔPc(s)

Applying final value theorem,

ΔPG (stat) = Δ

(ii)Uncontrolled case
Let us assume that the load suddenly increases by small amount ΔPD. Consider there is no external
work and the generator is delivering a power to a single load.

Since ΔPc=0, kgkt=1

ΔPG(s) = 1/ (1+sTG) (1+sTt) [-ΔF(s)/R]

For a step change ΔF(s) = Δf/s

Therefore
ΔPG(s) = 1/(1+sTG)(1+sTt)[-ΔF/sR]
Δf/ΔPG (stat) =-R Hz/MW

Steady State Performance of the ALFC Loop

In the steady state, the ALFC is in ‘open’ state, and the output is obtained by
substituting s→0 in the TF.

With s→0, Gg(s) and Gt(s) become unity, then,(note that ΔPm =ΔPT = PG =ΔPe = ΔPD; That is
turbine output = generator/electrical output = load demand)

ΔPm = ΔPref – (1/R) Δω or ΔPm = ΔPref – (1/R)Δf

When the generator is connected to infinite bus (Δf = 0, and ΔV = 0), then ΔPm = ΔPref . If the
network is finite, for a fixed speed changer setting (ΔPref = 0), then ΔPm = (1/R)Δf orΔf=RPm.

Dynamic Response Of Load Frequency Control

It has been shown that the load frequency control system posses inherently steady state error for a
step input. Applying the usual procedure, the dynamic response of the control loop can be evaluated
so that the initial response also can be seen for any overshoot.

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For this purpose considering the relatively larger time constant of the power system the governor
action can be neglected, treating it as instantaneous action. Further the turbine generator dynamics
also may be neglected at the first instant to derive a simple expression for the time response.

It has been proved that

For a step load change of magnitude k

Neglecting the governor action and turbine dynamics

Applying partial fractions

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3. Draw the block diagram of uncontrolled two area load frequency control system and explain the salient
features under static conditions? (NOV, 2011), (May, 2012) (M/J-16)

Consider two inter connected areas as shown in figure operating at the same frequency fl while a
power Power flow from area I to area 2

let V1 and V 2 be the voltage magnitudes 1, 2 voltage phase angles at the two ends of the tie-line
While P flows from area I to area 2 then,

Where X is the reactance of the line. If the angles change by f1o1, and f102 due to load changes in
areas I and 2 respectively. Then, the tie-line power changes by

Block diagram for tie-line power

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DYNAMIC RESPONSE:

Let us now turn our attention during the transient period for the sake of simplicity. We shall assume
the two areas to be identical .Further we shall be neglecting the time constants of generators and
turbines as they are negligible as compared to the time constants of power systems.
The equation may be derived for both controlled and uncontrolled cases. There are four equations
with four variables, to be determined for given PDl and PD2. The dynamic response can be obtained;
even though it is a little bit involved.
For simplicity assume that the two areas are equal. Neglect the governor and turbine dynamics,
which means that the dynamics of the system under study is much slower than the fast acting
turbine-governor system in a relative sense. Also assume that the load does not change with
frequency (D, = D2 = D = 0).

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 We obtain under these assumptions the following relations

Note that both K and ro2 are positive. From the roots of the characteristic equation we notice that the
system is stable and damped.

The frequency of the damped oscillations is given by Since Hand fo are constant, the frequency of
oscillations depends upon the regulation parameter R. Low R gives high K and high damping and
vice versa .We thus conclude from the preceding analysis that the two area system, just as in the case
of a single area system in the uncontrolled mode, has a steady state error but to a lesser extent and
the tie line power deviation and frequency deviation exhibit oscillations that are damped out later.

4. Obtain the state variable model of LFC of the single area system. (N/D-16) (A/M-16) (8m)
Derivation of state space equation

5. Develop the state variable model of a two area system with a block diagram representation (MAY 2012)
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6. What you mean by Tie – Line bias control, explain how it is used to control the power in multi area
system. (N/D-17)

Tie line bias control is based upon the principle that all operating pool members must contribute their share to
frequency control in addition to taking care of their own interchange.

Expression for tie-line flow in a two-area interconnected system

Δf=Δω1=Δω2= −ΔPD where
β1+β2
β1= D1+1/R1
β2= D2+1/R2

Consider a change in load ΔPD1 in area1. The steady state frequency deviation Δf is the same for
both the areas. That is Δf = Δf1 = Δf2. Thus, for area1, we have

ΔPm1 - ΔPD1 - ΔP12 = D1Δf

Where, Area 2 ΔP12 is the tie line power flow from Area1to Area 2; and for ΔPm2 + ΔP12 = D2Δf
The mechanical power depends on regulation. Hence ΔPm1= - Δf1 ΔPm2= - Δf2

Substituting these equations, yields

(1/R1+ D1) Δf =-ΔP12- ΔPm

(1/R2+ D2) Δf =-ΔP12- ΔPm

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 Δf= -ΔPD1/ β1 + β2
Solving for Δf, we get

ΔP12= -ΔPD1 β 2
β1+β2

Where, 1 and 2 are the composite frequency response characteristic of Area1 and Area 2
respectively. An increase of load in area1 by ΔPD1 results in a frequency reduction in both areas and
a tie-line flow of ΔP12. A positive ΔP12 is indicative of flow from Area1 to Area 2 while a negative
ΔP12 means flow from Area 2 to Area1. Similarly, for a change in Area 2 load by ΔPD2, we have
Δf= -ΔPD2/ β1 + β2
ΔP12= -ΔPD2 β 1
β1+β2

7. A two area system connected by a tie line has the following parameters with base MVA for each area with
the frequency of 50 Hz and synchronizing power co-efficient T 12 = 2 Pu. A load change of 400 MW occurs in
area 1. Determine the steady state frequency deviation and the change in tie line flow. (A/M-17)
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 Area 1 2
Turbine output power 2000 MVA 1000 MVA
Inertia constant 3% 4%
Generator gain constant 50 Hz/pu MW 40
Governor time constant 0.3 0.2
Turbine time constant 0.6 0.4

SOLUTION

B1=1/Kp1 = 0.02 pu MW/Hz

B2 = 1/Kp2 = 0.025 pu MW/Hz
R1 = 3/100*fr/Pr =1.5 Hz/p.u MW
R2 = 5/100*fr/Pr = 2.5 Hz /p.u MW
DPD1 = 0.2 p.u
DPD2 = 0
DPG1 = -D f / R1 = 296.5 MW
DPG2 = -D f / R2 = 88.96 MW
DPD1 = B1D f = -8.896MW
DPD2 = B2D f = -0.2224MW
Change in total load = DPD1 + DPD1 = -14.456 MW

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8. Two synchronous generators operating in parallel. Their capacities are 300 MW and 400 MW. The droop
characteristics of their governor are 4% and 5% from no load to full load. Assuming that the generators
are operating at 50Hz no load, how would be a load of 600MW shared between them. What will be the
system frequency at this load? Assume free governor action. (A/M-13)
SOLUTION
Speed regulation = No load speed – Full load speed / full load speed
OD = 48.076 Hz
OF = 47.619 Hz
F = 48.148 Hz
Load shared by alternator 1 = 288.781 MW
Load shared by alternator 2 = 311.219 MW

9. A control area had a total capacity 1000MW. The speed regulation ‘R’ for all the units in the area is 2
Hz/p.u. MW. A one percent change in frequency causes a one percent change in load. If the system
operating at half of the rated capacity and the load increase by 2%, a) find the static frequency drop
and b) if the speed governor loops were open what would be the frequency drop.

SOLUTION
Speed regulation = No load speed – Full load speed / full load speed
a. Static frequency = 0.02Hz;
b. Static frequency = 1 Hz

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