Back SN22821: Food Processing Methods BSC (HONORS) IN FOOD SCIENCE ANDNUTRITION PROGRAM School of Science and Technology Bangladesh Cipen Zfniversity Session 2019 — 2020 FSN223207| “2d Semester of 2™ Year” Make as According to slabus by: *farid Ahmed’ DSc in FSN 4" Semester of 8" At DIU under BOU. ID No: 20156111051. 1" Batch of BFSN. Note: This sheet some topic is describe broadly for better knowledge. You can take your topic by short as much as your brain is capable. Decorated by-_farid Ahmed.2 FS\22324T: Food Processing Methods Collected from: Lecture sheet fram: DR. MD AZIZUL HAQUE Help from: Professor Sharmin Akter Department of Food Technology and Nutritional Science 20-1-56-111-023 Nawiana Bhashani Science and Technology University, DIU under BOU. Tangail-I902 Bangladesh Lecture sheet fram: Help From: ABIR HOSSAIN Chanchal Biswas Assistant Professor 20-1-56-111-028, DIU under BOU. Uhaka University of Engineering and Technology (DUET). Gazipur Collect from DIU, USC, IISH study center, Food Processing Method, Internet & others. to build up as according to syllabus. LD According to syllabus: % Portion 1 of Syllabus- “Food Processing” 1.1-Definition food processing, 1.2-General concept of food processing, 1.3-Importance of food processing, 1.4-Advantages and disadvantages of food processing, 1.5-Classification of foods based on perishability. 1.6-Major causes of food deterioration/spoilage, ‘S Portion 2 of Syllabus- 2.1-Post-harvest handing and 2.2-Preparation of foods for processing. 2.3-Properties of raw food materials and their susceptibility to deterioration and damage, 2.4-Storage and transportation of raw materials, 2'5-Raw material cleaning, sorting and grading % Portion 3 of Syllabus- “Methods of Food Processing” 3.1- Mixing (agitation, blending), 3.13- Extrusion, 3.2- Size reduction or milling- 3.2.-Crushing, 3.2.2-Grinding dry & wet grinding for solid. 3.2.3-Homogenization & atomization for Liquid comminution. 3.3- Chopping or slicing, 3.4 Emulsification, 3.5- Peeling or skinning, 3.6- Screening of solids (removing), 3.7- Filtration, 3.8- Membrane separation, 3.9- Centrifugation, 3.10- Extraction, 3.11- Crystallization, 3.12- Heat processing, 3.14- Gelling, 3.15- Baking, 3.16- Cooking such as- 3.16.1- Boiling, 3.16.2- Broiling, 3.16.3- Frying, 3.16.4- Steaming or grilling, 3.17- Roasting and toasting, 3.18- High pressure processing, 3.19- Membrane processing, 3.20- Ozone processing, 3.21- Novel thermal processing techniques, 3.22- Separation and concentration, 3.23- Dough processing. Decorated by-_forid Ahmed.FSN2232T Food Processing Methods 3 Portion 1 of syllabus Food Processing EY secon 1g 10 syllabus- 1.1-Definition food processing, 1.2-General concept of food processing, 1.3-Importance of food processing, 1.4-Advantages and disadvantages of food processing, 1.5-Classification of foods based on perishability. 1.6-Major causes of food deterioration/spoilage, 1.1- History of food processing: ‘Some of the earliest forms of food processing resulted in dry food products. These references to various types of commodities date to very early times and the use of thermal energy from the sun to evaporate water from the product and establish stable and safe dry product. The history of chilled and/or refrigerated foods dates to very early times as well. ‘+ The use of high temperature to produce safe food products dates to the 1790s in France. ‘* Napoleon Bonaparte offered a prize to scientists to develop preserved foods for the armies of France. © This offer led to the research of Nicholas Appert & the commercial sterilization of foods. (Sterilization is also called Appertization). © In the 1860s, Louis Pasteur, working with beer and wine, developed the process of pasteurization. Nicolas Appert “father of canning? 1.2- General concept of food processing: Definition: A simple definition of food processing is ‘the conversion of raw materials or ingredients’ into a “consumer food product’ Paddy > Rice; Paddy... > Rie: ‘A more complete definition is found from Connor (1988), where commercial food processing is defined as- that branch of manufacturing that starts with raw animal, vegetable, or marine materials and transforms them into intermediate foodstuffs or edible products through the application of labor, machinery, energy, and scientific knowledge. . > Cakes > Rice flow Decorated by- Sarid Ahmed.4 FSN22320T: Food Processing Methods ‘Types of processing: 1. Primary processing: Changes a basic food stuff, to change keeping quality, make it saleable and ready for cooking and eating. E.g. milling wheat, pasteurizing milk, making vegetable oil from seeds & nuts. 2. Secondary processing (convenience foods): Takes a basic processed food and uses it to produce a food product. E.g. making margarine from vegetable oil, making bread, cakes, biscuits from flour, making dairy products from milk, convenience meals ete ew y do we process food? Or, Important of food processing i. Preservation for later consumption or sale to fetch better price ii, Removal of inedible portions iii, Destruction or removal of harmful substances iv. Conversion to forms desired by the consumer and v. Subdivision into food ingredients. © What are the effects of processing on food? Some vitamins are more stable than others. Water-soluble vitamins (B-group and C) are more unstable than fat-soluble vitamins (K, A, D and E) during food processing and storage. ‘The most unstable vitamins include: + Folate. © Thiamine. © Vitamin c. More stable vitamins include: © Niacin (vitamin B3) «= Vitamin K © Vitamin D © Biotin (vitamin B7) * Pantothenic acid (vitamin BS). 1.3- Importance of food processing: (2-tdeenunefhead eae All the raw food materials are processed to improve their palatability, nutritional value & shelf life. Foods are processed for five major reasons: Preservation for later consumption or sale to fetch better price Removal of inedible portions Destruction or removal of harmful substances. Conversion to forms desired by the consumer and. ‘Subdivision into food ingredients. yaeee Generally, the first - preservation for later consumption or sale — is the primary reason for food Processing. Decorated by-_sacid Ahmed.SN2232T: Food Processing Nethods 5 ‘The small-scale food processing sector: - Isa major source of employment, ~ Adds value to crops by processing, - Isa major source of food in the diet, ~ In some cases, by export, ears valuable foreign exchange, - Provides opportunities for import substitution, ~ Benefits a large number of people, such as farmers, packaging suppliers and vendors. 1.4- Advantages & Disadvantages of Food Processing: 14-ssunse uae only A. Advantage of food processing: 1. We get food material out of season. It prevents spoilage of food staff. It enables the availability food material at distance place. ‘Storage period increase. Prevent food contamination. Turns food materials into attractive marketable product. Its booster the shelf life of food product. Provide employment to a large population. 1. Ensuring food safety. 10. Preserving nutritional quality. 11. Allowing fortification & enrichment. Per avewy Disadvantage of food processing: Process food staff often lase nutrient Milled & polished rice result in loss of iron & vitamin B In white flower there is loss of weight & nutrients ‘The original test change to some extent Food that contain sugar & fat can lead to a lot of health problems like diabetes, heart disease & other cardiovascular problem. 6. Peeling outer layer of fruits, vegetable and whole grain may remove plant nutrients phytochemical & fiber. 7. Heating or drying food can destroy certain vitamins & minerals. veer OR, Advantages and disadvantages of food processing, AL Increasing availability and convenience Advantages: ‘© Food processing allows us to eat a greater variety of foods than our ancestors. ‘* Because we can safely preserve and package foods, we are able to transport foods from across the globe to our homes. ‘© e.g: Apples are typically harvested over a two- or three-month period yet are available year-round. ‘+ Increased choice allows us to have a more varied diet, which is more likely to provide all. the nutrients required for good health. Decornred by-farid Ahmed.FS\22320T: Food Processing Methods Disadvantages: ‘* We are now routinely transporting foods over many miles, often by air, which contributes to the environmental impact of food production and to climate change. ‘© Consumers forget which foods can be grown at which times of the year, expect them all year round and are not prepared to pay extra for the additional energy and resources. Ensuring food safety: ‘Advantages: We have use-by dates on perishable foods that show us how Tong itis safe to eat. © Food processing operations, like pasteurization of milk, canning or drying, help make the food safe. Disadvantages: © A disadvantage of this tightly regulated labeling system though, is that supermarkets must dispose of products that have exceeded their sell-by dates. ‘© This results in wasting large amounts of food that is still safe. Personalized nutrition and health: Advantages: ‘+ We are increasingly aware of how the foods we eat impact our health, and that our individual nutritional needs may differ from those of others. ‘* Modern food processing has made it possible to tailor foods to specific needs and give us ‘more control over our own health. Disadvantages: ‘+ It creates confusion and is often difficult to work out which foods we can trust. Preserving nutritional quality: Advantages: ‘* Moder preservation methods maintain not only the quality of food, but also its nutritional properties. ‘© Preservation and packaging techniques stabilize these important nutrients. Disadvantages: © On the other hand, nutrients are sometimes lost during processing and subsequent storage. Fortification and enrichment: Advantages: © We fortify and enrich foods to add micronutrients, like trace minerals and vitamins. Disadvantages: Shelf life of fortified milled cereals is reduced. © Regular quality control is essential. Prolonged cooking of fortified food leads to 90% loss of vitamin C. Fortified commodity is more expensive. Decornted by- Sarid Ahmed.SN22RAIT Food Processing Methods 7 Benefits of cooking food. It would be inaccurate to say that cooking food always lessens the nutrient value. Cooking can be advantageous in many ways, including: © Making the food tastier, * Breaking down parts of vegetables that would otherwise be indigestible. ‘© Destroying bacteria or other harmful micro-organisms. © Making phytochemicals more available, for instance, phytochemicals are more available in cooked tomatoes than in raw tomatoes. (phytochemicals are chemicals produced by plants). 1,5- Classify food basis of perishability Classification of food based on perishability: = These groups are based on the stability of foods in terms of expected storage or shelf life. * This is relative since all foods are perishable if incorrectly stored. * Storing under appropriate conditions will maximize shelf life. ie li bad xin Nonperishable: + Low moisture and low-fat e.g; flour, sugar, pasta, rice, cocoa, dried peas and beans * Most canned and bottled goods ‘May be stored at room temperature for relatively long periods. B. Semi perishable: + Items still low in moisture but containing more fat © Keep quite well for 1-3 months at room temperature, e.g; snack foods, potato chips, pretzels, deep frying compound, biscuits + Keeping qualities of some items may be improved if held under refrigeration temperatures €.g; eggs, nuts, butter, margarine, firm cheeses. Perishable ‘© The quality of these goods deteriorates rapidly at room temperature * Shelf life of between 2-10 days e.g.; meats, poultry, fish, shellfish, milk, cream, fresh & soft cheese, breads, fruits, most vegetables, cooked foods, products made with eggs or stock * Assub group within the perishable category is the potentially hazardous foods. © Describe the way/method for storage of perishable foods: Fresh foods like meat, chicken and fish need to be kept frozen at - 60°C in a deep freeze for long term storage. Eggs are best kept in a cool place or in a basket in an airy room refrigerator. ‘© Milk in boiled form can be kept at room temperature for 6 to 12 hours during winters. Inside a refrigerator milk can last 3 to 4 days or even more in closed container. ‘© Vegetables must be kept in plastic bags to prevent drying by evaporation, if stored in a refrigerator. * Do not wash fruits before storing as they spoil faster. © Remember not to, refrigerate bananas, pineapples, papayas and avocadoes, as these fruits undergo undesirable changes in texture and flavour at refrigerator temperature. Most other fruits keep well, when refrigerated. Decorated by-_farid Ahmed.8 ES\2222T Fod Processing Methods Perishable: potentially hazardous foods © Fresh meat: 1-3°C Poultry: 0°C. Fish, shellfish: 0°C on crushed ice. co° ® Why is fish more preferable than meat? ‘The nutritional profile and potential health benefits of fish are quite different from those of other types of meat. For example, red meat is high in saturated fat, vitamin B 2, iron, niacin, and zine ‘Meanwhile, fish isa great source of omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, thiamine, selenium, and iodine. Red meat has a greater fat content than fish, but it's largely saturated fat, which might negatively impact cholesterol levels. Fish has a higher concentration of omega-3 fatty acids In meat, connective tissue binds together bundles of fibers within the muscle, surrounds the individual muscles, and attaches muscle to bone. Fish has shorter muscle fibers and less connective tissue than meat, and the connective tissue is more delicate and positioned differently. 1.6- Major causes of food deterioration/spoilage: 0.) [Link] cases offal deteriseaton pole, ‘A number of factors are responsible for spoilage of food. These are: 1. Infection by microorganisms. . 2. Action of enzymes. 3. Damage by insects, parasites & rodents. 4, Mechanical damage. 5. Characteristics and storage conditions of food. 1. Microbial Spoilage: ‘+ Microorganisms may infect food after harvesting, during its handling, processing and storage. © Spoilage organisms are present everywhere- in soil, air, water, food etc. 2. Enzymatic Spoilage: ‘The changes in foods during storage can be produced by enzymes present in the food or by enzymes from the microorganisms that contaminate the food. ‘+ E.g.: Ripening of banana due to enzymes present. After some time, banana becomes too soft and unfit to eat. ‘* Eg.:If there is a bruised spot on the banana, yeasts can grow and produce enzymes which spoil the fruit. * Usually, all enzymes are inactivated at 80°C. 3. Spoilage by insects, parasites and rodents: ‘© Insects are particularly destructive to foods. ‘+ The loss of food due to insects varies from 5 to 50 per cent. ‘© Certain parasites can spoil foods. Decornted by-_farid Ahmed.FS\ZZRT: Food Processing Methods 9 ‘© Apart from the direct loss through consumption of the food, insects cause greater damage by the bruises and cuts they make in foods thus exposing them to microbial attack resulting in total decay. ‘* A common parasitic infection of foods is Entamoeba histoly ica responsible for amoebic dysentery. © Cooking kills, most of these parasite Rats contribute substantially lo destruction of food. ‘© Apart from the fact that they consume large quantities of food, they contaminate it with urine and droppings which harbor disease producing bacteria. 4, Mechanical Damage: ‘+ Itis not possible to pick fruits from trees without some injury to them. ‘+ Sometimes fruits are bruised or scratched during harvesting and handling. If precautions are not taken, the injured spots become the points of entrance of microorganisms which cause spoilage. © Crown rot in banana. © Stem end rot in mango. © Pedicel rot in pineapple, © Green mould in citrus, © Blue mould in apple (H.W.) OR, 1.6- Major causes of food spoilage/deterioration: Major Causes of food deterioration / Spoilage: 1. Physical: 3. Ms Microorganisms; © Temperature. © Bacteria. © Relative humidity. © Yest © Light. © Molds. © Mechanical damage. a Chem: 4. Other: jemical: Insects. © Enzyme reaction. © Animals. © Non enzymatic reactions. © Rodents. © Rancidity. | © Binds © Chemical interaction. For Exercise: 1. What is processing? 2. Whar is food processing? 3. Why do we process food? 4. Define food processing with examples. 5. Why do we process food? 6. What are the effects of processing on food? 7. Is food processing always harmful? What is your opinion? -explain 8. Why is fish more preferable than mea? 9. Classify food on the basis of perishability+ Examples. 10. Describe the way/method for storage of perishable foods. 11, What are the causes of food spoilage/deterioration? Decorated by-_sarid Ahmed.10 FSV22320T: Food Processing Methods Portion 2 of syllabus Food Processing ae) According 10 syllabus 2.1-Post-harvest handing and 2.2-Preparation of foods for processing. 2.3-Properties of raw food materials and 2.4-Susceptibility to deterioration and damage of raw food materials, 2.5-Storage and transportation of raw materials, 2.6-Raw material cleaning, sorting and grading. Harvesting: Harvesting is a deliberate action of separating a product or plant part from its mother plant or origin. Food Handling: Food handling is the process of preparing food that is safe for public consumption. Essential to implementing safe food handling is that food handlers receive training on personal hygiene and sanitation, cooking and storing food at appropriate temperature and other safe food handling practices. 2.1- Post-harvest handing: 02. Rss bn Post-harvest: The period after the produce has been detached from the mother plant or ori Post-harvest physiology: Refers to the metabolism of produce after harvest. 2.1.1- Why does post-harvest management is important? The quality of horticultural produce can only be protected through good harvest and post- harvest handling practices. However, adoption of good practices at harvest & post-harvest does not change poor produce into good ones, but preserves the quality of good crops through long shelf life & hence higher income for individuals, community & the economy of nations at large © Farmers spent much time (about 3-6 months) from land preparation to harvesting, but can lose all the benefits of the crop in a few seconds through improper harvesting & post-harvest handling. ‘Harvesting by dropping fruits like mangoes and oranges to the ground can result into serious damages of fruits leading to significant postharvest losses. Transportation mishandling for produce like bananas in trucks without packaging accounts for serious losses. © It is estimated that in many cases post-harvest loss contributes to over 60% of horticultural produces. This is through improper harvesting time i.e. immature or over mature harvesting, lack of use of packing and packaging materials, improper transport means, poor storage at the farm and beyond i.e. no shelter and cold storage facilities etc.FSW22324T: Food Processing Methods mT 2.1.2- Quality of Management of Postharvest Handling & Preparation of Food for Processing (0.22:Preparation of ns Production quality. Harvest and handling quality. Storage quality. Packaging quality. Transportation quality. Marketing quality. ay een eo 2.1.3- Specific Objectives of post-harvest management: ‘+ Apply post-harvest physiology principles to control post-harvest losses of perishable plant. ‘© Properly harvest fresh vegetables enhanced postharvest quality, ‘© Explain the importance of packaging & the requirements for packaging of perishable vegetables 2.1.4- Pre-harvest factors affecting the post-harvest quality management. 1. Genetic / variety. 7. Canopy manipulation. 2. Light. 8 Rainfall. 3. Temperature. 9. Seasons / Day and day length, 4, Humidity. 10. Carbon dioxide. 5. Mineral nutrition. 11. Use of agrochemicals. 6. Water relation/ Irrigation. 12, Pest and diseases. 2.1.5- Post-harvest management practices that reduce product loss to spoilage or shrinkage will reduce microbial risks. These include: © Cleaning the product. Sorting. Packaging. Quick cooling. Good refrigerated storage. Good transportation & distribution. Also includes Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs): © Packing facility sanitation. Building. Equipment. Storage. Water quality. Worker hygiene. Proper sorting and culling of product. Maintaining detectable free chlorine in wash waters. Enforcing good worker hygiene. Cleaning and sanitizing equipment.12 FS22320T: Food Processing Methods 2.1.6- Sorting of post-harvest food products: Objective of Sorting: To remove product or portions of product that may detract or pose a risk for shortened shelf life and/or contamination by a microbial organism. © Contaminated product © Senescing product * Insect damaged product * Product with a broken skin Product that is out of grade. 2.1.7- Cleaning & Sanitizing of post-harvest food products: > Cleaning means free of any visible soil & other materials. © May involve the use of soap/detergent and water. (© Adequate rinsing so no residue is present. © Using water of potable quality. > Sanitizing is next step. © Reduction of pathogens to non-harmful levels. 2.1.8 Climacteric Fruits and Non-Climacteric Fruits: i. In elimacterie, the respiration slows down as the fruit ripens and develops good eating quality. In climacteric fruits, ripening refers to fruits that can be harvested when physiologically ‘matured. The start of ripening is accompanied by a rapid rise in respiration rate called the respiratory climacteric. Examples: Mango, Banana, Papaya, Guava, Sapota, Kiwi, Fig, Apple, Passion fruit, Apricot, Plum, Pear. In non-climacteric ripening refers to those fruits which ripe on the tree as observed in cherry, ‘grape, lemon etc. Respiration rate decreases gradually during growth and after harvest. Examples: Orange, Mousambi, Kinnow, Grapefruit, Grapes, Pomegranate, Litchi, Water- ‘melon, Cherry, Raspberry, Blackberry, Strawberry. Difference between Climacteric and non-Climacteric fruits: Climacteric In climacteric, the respiration slows down as the fruit ripens and develops good eating quality. ‘non-Climacterie In non-climacteric ripening refers to those fruits which ripe on the tree. In climacteric fruits, ripening refers to fruits that can be harvested when physiologically matured. Tn non-climacteric ripening on the tree Mango, Banana, Papaya, Guava, Sapota, Kiwi, Fig, Apple, Passion fruit, Apricot, Plum, Pear. Orange, Mousambi, Kinnow, Grapefruit, Grapes, Pomegranate, Litchi, Water-melon, Cherry, Raspberry, Blackberry, Strawberry Decorated by-_farid Ahmed.FSN22320T: Food Processing Methods 13 4: Properties of 2.3- Properties of raw food materials: Properties of raw food materials and their susceptibility to deterioration and damage: > The selection of raw materials is a vital consideration to the quality of processed products. > Quality is a wide-ranging concept and is determined by many factors. > It is a composite of those physical and chemical properties of the material which govern its acceptability to the “‘user.”” (in this case, the food processor). ‘The main raw material properties of importance to the processor are: i. Geometry. ii, Color. . Texture. Functional properties, and v. Flavor. i. Geometric Properties: © Food units of regular geometry are much easier to handle and are better suited to high- speed mechanized operations. © Uniformity of size and shape is also important to most operations and processes. For example, itis essential that wheat kernel size is uniform for flour milling. ii. Color: * Color and color uniformity are vital components of the visual quality of fresh foods and play a major role in consumer choice. © For more severe processing, the color may change markedly during the process. © For low-temperature processes, such as chilling, freezing, or freeze drying, the color changes little during processing. iii, Texture: © The texture of raw materials is frequently changed during processing. © The raw material must be robust enough to withstand the mechanical stresses during preparation, for example, abrasion during cleaning of fruit and vegetables. iv. Flavor: © Flavor is a rather subjective property which is difficult to quantify. © Flavor quality of horticultural products is influenced by genotype and a range of pre-and post-harvest factors. Flavor is normally assessed by human tasters, although sometimes flavor can be linked to some analytical test, such as sugar/acid levels in fruits. v, Functional Properties: © The functionality of a raw material is the combination of properties which determine product quality and process effectiveness.14 FS\22320T: Food Processing Methods 2.4- Susceptibility to deterioration & damage of raw food materials: 2. Tie mem oder A nase Gi Deterioration of raw material: All raw materials deteriorate following harvest by some of the following mechanism: i, Endogenous enzyme: Postharvest senescence and spoilage of fruit & vegetables occurs through a number of enzymatic mechanisms including- ~ Oxidation of phenolic substances in plant tissue by phenols (leading to browning); Sugar-starch conversion by amylase; Postharvest demethylation of pectin substances in fruits and ‘Vegetables leading to softening tissue during ripening & firming of plant tissues during processing. ii, Chemical Change: This include the determination in sensory quality by lipid oxidation; nonenzymic browning; breakdown of pigment such as chlorophyll, anthocyanins & carotenoids. iii, Nutritional change: Breakdown of ascorbic acid is an important example. iv. Physical change: This include dehydration & moisture absorption. v. Biological change: Example are the germination of seeds and sprouting vi. Microbiological contamination: Both the organisms themselves and their toxic product lead to deterioration of quality as well as posing safety problem. 3 Damage to Raw Materials: ‘© Damage may occur at any point from growing through to the final point of sale. © Itmay arise through external or internal forces. ‘© Extemal forces result in mechanical injury to fruits and vegetables, cereal grains, eggs. * They occur due to rough handling as a result of careless manipulation, poor equipment design, incorrect containerization, and unsuitable mechanical handling equipment. ‘© Internal forces arise from physical changes such as variation in temperature and moisture content and may result in skin cracks in fruits and vegetables, or stress cracks in cereals. ‘© Either form of damage leaves the material open to further biological or chemical damage including enzymic browning of bruised tissue, or infestation of punctured surfaces by molds and rots. 2.5- Storage of raw materials: 0.24 Swase ‘© Storage of food is necessary at all points of the food chain from raw materials, through ‘manufacture, distribution, retailers, and final purchasers. ‘© The main factors that govern the quality of stored foods are temperature, moisture/humidity, and atmospheric composition. © Different raw materials provide very different challenges. ‘© Many fruits (including bananas, apples, tomatoes, and mangoes) display a sharp increase in respiration rate during ripening, just before the point of optimum ripening, known as the “climacteric.” Decorated by-_farid Ahmed.FSN22320T: Foo Processing Methods 15 ‘© The onset of the climacteric is associated with the production of high levels of ethylene, which is believed to stimulate the ripening process. ‘© Climacteric fruit can be harvested unripe and ripened artificially at a later time. ‘© _Itis vital to maintain careful temperature control during storage or the fruit will rapidly over ripen. © Non-climacteric fruits (e-g., citrus fruit, pineapples, strawberries) and vegetables do not display this behavior, and generally do not ripen after harvest. © Quality is therefore optimal at harvest, and the task is to preserve quality during storage. ‘* With meat storage the overriding problem is growth of spoilage bacteria, while avoiding oxidative rancidity. ‘© Cereals must be dried before storage to avoid germination and mold growth, and subsequently must be stored under conditions which prevent infestation with rodents, birds, insects. © Factors affecting storage: 1, Temperature: * Higher temperature higher metabolic activities. Rate of reaction within physiological temperature range increase exponentially with increase in temperature. ‘© Chemical reaction approx. doubles with 10°C rise in temp. * Lower limit of physiological temperature is above freezing temperature. * And higher limit of physiological temperature is around 30°C. © Athigher temperature ethylene cannot act, color cannot develop, enzyme cannot perform functions so metabolic injury occurs. © Safe storage temperature is above freezing temperature care should be taken for chilling sensitive cultivars. 2. Relative humidit © Higher RH lower water loss. * Very high RH favors fungus growth. * 90% RH is best but for onion 65-75% and for leafy vegetables 98-100%. 3. Ventilation: ‘© Excessive ventilation results wilting and shrinkage while inadequate may cause decay of produce, © Necessary to manage temperature. * For gaseous exchange 4, Stage of maturity: ‘Should be harvested at right time for longer shelf life. 2.6- Transportation of raw material ‘© Food transportation is an essential link in the food chain. © Raw materials, food ingredients, fresh produce, and processed products are all transported on a local and global level, by land, sea, and air. Decorated by-_farid Ahmed.16 FSN22320T: Food Processing Methods Air or sea transport would commonly involve at least one road trip before and one road trip after the main journey. ‘© There would also be time spent on the ground at the port or airport where the material could be ‘exposed to wide-ranging temperatures and humidity, or bright sunlight, and unscheduled delays are always a possibility. ‘© The major challenge during transportation is to move the goods to the right place at the right time and in good condition. 2.7- Raw material cleaning: (225 Bo meri eine All food raw materials are cleaned before processing. The purpose is obviously to remove contaminants. > The main contaminants are: Unwanted parts of the plant such as leaves, twigs, husks; Soil, sand, stones, and metallic particles from the growing area; Insects and their eggs; ‘Animal excreta, hairs, and so on; Pesticides and fertilizers; Microorganisms and their toxins. A. Dry Cleaning Methods: Dry methods are generally less expensive than wet methods and the effluent is cheaper to dispose of but they tend to be less effective in terms of cleaning efficiency © Screens: Screens are essentially size separators based on perforated beds or wire mesh by which larger contaminants are removed from smaller food items (e.g., straw from cereal grains, or pods and ‘twigs from peas) This is termed “scalping” (fig. a) ejected maleral Decornted by-farid Ahmed.FSN22320T: Food Processing Methods 7 Alternatively, “de-dusting”” is the removal of smaller particles (e.g., sand or dust) from larger food units (fig. b) 7 Foods je 0. 0 \ 0 9 oo ww 5 31543 i} vy . Fig: Flatbed screen Fig: Aspiration cleaning N“ se at B. Wet Cleaning Methods: ° ‘* Wet methods are necessary if large quantities of soil are to be removed. ‘© They are; however, expensive as. large quantities of high purity water are required, and the same quantity of dirty effluent is used. ‘© Treatment and reuse of water can reduce Decorated by-farid Ahmed.18 FSN2220T: Food Processing Meth Water sprays: rollers Direction of roller conveyor Fig: Spray belt washer Water sprays Dirty material 2.8- Sorting and Grading: 02.5 en A. Sorting: Sorting and grading are terms which are frequently used interchangeably in the food processing industry. But they are distinct operations. Sorting is a separation based on a single measurable property of raw material units. A.1- Criteria and Methods of Sorting: '* Sorting is carried out based on individual physical properties. ‘+ Weight is usually the most precise method of sorting. ‘© Eggs, fruit, or vegetables may be separated into weight categories. ‘© Size sorting may be another method. ‘© Sorting into size categories requires some sort of screen. © Fig: Feed into conta vi ~ “ec Deven alee « » Fig: Size-sorting equipment: (a) concentric drum screen Fig: (b) roller size-sorter Decorated by-farid Ahmed.FSNZZ0NT: Food Processing Methods 19 '* Shape sorting is useful in cases where the food units are contaminated with particles of similar size and weight. This is particularly applicable to grain which may contain other seeds. ‘The principle is that disks or cylinders with accurately shaped indentations will pick up seeds of the correct shape when rotated through the stock, while other shapes will remain in the feed. Photometric properties may be used as a basis for sorting. In practice this usually means color. Color is often a measure of maturity, presence of defects etc. 00, = oN Prntnete Ce aa “e 9 e > e Q 7e@ Q 3 e od uty post -O onctod ‘poauc ° Fig: Cross section of disk separators for ‘leaning cereals. Fig: Principle of color sorter. B. Grading: Grading is “the assessment of the overall quality of a food using a number of attributes.” Grading of fresh produce may also be defined as “sorting according to quality” © Grading is classification based on quality (incorporating commercial value, end-use, and official standards). Trained operators are frequently used to judge the quality. ‘+ A fruit grader could simultaneously judge shape, color, evenness of color, and degree of russeting in apples. ‘© Egg “‘candling” involves inspection of eges spun in front of a light so that many factors, including shell cracks, diseases, blood spots, or fertilization, can be detected. Apparently, experienced candlers can grade thousands of eggs per hour. ‘* Machine grading is only feasible where quality of a food is linked to a single physical property Decorated by-_farid Ahmed.20 FSW: 3207: Food Processing Methods Fig: Grading of eggs. For Exercise: What do you mean by the handling of foods for processing? Define the quality management of post-harvest handling of foods. What is cleaning important for food processing? Mention the food grade sanitizing agents for fruits and vegetables. What do you mean by separation of food? Why is it important? What do you mean by disintegration of foods? What are the requirements for good food storage? What are the best tips for storage of high-quality post-harvest food products? What are the factors that affect storage of fruits and vegetables? 0. Define Climacteric and non-climacteric fruits? Give examples. pyr Bee ae22520: Food Processing Methods. 21 Portion 3 of syllabus Methods of Food Processing aa According to svllabus- 3.1- Mixing (agitation, blending), 3.13- Extrusion, 3.2. Size reduction or milling- 3.14- Gelling, 3.2.1-Crushing, 3.15- Baking, 3.2.2-Grinding dry & wet grinding for solid. 3.16- Cooking such as- 3.2.3-Homogenization & atomization for liquid 3.16.1- Boiling, comminution. 3.16.2- Broiling, 3.3- Chopping or slicing, 3.16.3- Frying, 3.4- Emulsification, 3.16.4- Steaming or grilling, 3.5- Peeling or skinning, 3.17- Roasting and toasting, 3.6- Screening of solids (removing), 3.18- High pressure processing, 3.7- Filtration, 3.19. Membrane processing, 3.8- Membrane separation, 3.20- Ozone processing, 3.9- Centrifugation, 3.21- Novel thermal processing techniques, 3.10- Extraction, 3.22- Separation and concentration, 3.11- Crystallization, 3.23- Dough processing. 3.12- Heat processing, 3.1- Agitation: 0.3.1: Ariuation Agitation is a means whereby mixing of phases can be accomplished and by which mass and heat transfer can be enhanced between phases or with external surfaces. In its most general sense, the process of mixing is concerned with all combinations of phases of which the most frequently occurring ones are- i. Gases with gases. ii, Gases into liquids: dispersion. iii, Gases with granular solids: fluidization, pneumatic conveying, drying. iv. Liquids into gases: spraying and atomization. v. Liquids with liquids: dissolution, emulsification, dispersion Liquids with granular solids: suspension. Pastes with each other and with solids viii, Solids with solids: mixing of powders, 3.1.2- Objectives of agitation and mixing: i. Blending of miscible liquids. ii, Dispersion of immiscible liquids. Dispersion of gases in liquids. iv. Suspension of solid particles in a slurry. v. Enhancement of heat exchange between the fluid and the boundary of a container. vi, Enhancement of mass transfer between dispersed phases.2 FS\22320T: Food Processing Methods 3.1.3- Aren't Mixing and Blending the Same Thing? Blending and mixing are two of the most critical processes in food manufacturing and other industries. Although the differences are very subtle, they do have something in common. Both combine two or more different substances, but the similarities end there. ‘© Mixing is generally concerned with many different substances put together to form a new product. In the context of food, mixing involves both dry and wet ingredients. Think of when you mix water, yeast, sugar, and flour to make a dough. Example of mixing products- oodles, Bread, Sauces, Canned soup. ‘* Blending entails mixing only dry ingredients. Think of how pancake mix is made. It’s usually ablend of many different dry components (flour, salt, sugar, starches, etc.). Or how we describe tea or coffee “blends,” which is nothing more than combining different varieties of tea leaves, or coffee beans together. > Blending is a gentler process than mixing. The aim is to create a uniform distribution of each component in the final blend. It’s not to mish-mash all the ingredients together. Most industrial- grade blenders make it a point to minimize ingredient contact with the blender’s blades > Examples include: Powder Mixes (such as pancake mix), Spices (such as curry), Granules (such as instant coffee), Powdered drinks. Difference between Blending and mixture: Blending Mixture 1. For this process same fibers of different | 1. In this process two different fibers are mixed. properties are mixed. 2. Different properties of fibers are used for | 2. Same properties of fibers are used for mixing. blending 3._ Here quality of fibers is considered. 3. Here quality of is not considered 4, Blending is done only dry items 4, Mixture is involving both dry and wet items. 5. Example: Mixing of water, yeast, sugar and | 5. Example: Powder Mixes such as pancake mix. flour, to make a “dough, 3.2- Size reduction or milli (2.12 Si ating ‘+ In the food industry, raw materials and intermediate products must often be submitted to size reduction operations such as cutting, chopping, grinding, milling and so on. ‘* In the case of liquids and semisolids, size reduction operations include mashing, atomizing, homogenizing etc. a. Application of Size Reduction: The following are some important applications of size reduction in the food industry: 1. Milling of cereal grains to obtain flour Fine grinding (refining) of chocolate mass Flaking of soybeans prior to solvent extraction Cutting of vegetables and fruits to desired shapes (cubes, strips, slices...) Fine mashing of baby food Homogenization of milk and cream. awEen Decorated by-farid Ahmed.FSN223AT: Food Processing Methods 23 b, Objectives of Size Reduction: 1. Accelerating heat and mass transfer (flaking of soybeans or grinding coffee in preparation to extraction, atomization of milk as a fine spray into hot air in spray-drying). 2. Facilitating separation of different parts of a material (milling wheat to obtain flour and bran separately, filleting of fish). 3. Obtaining a desirable product texture (refining of chocolate mass, meat grinding). 4, Facilitating mixing and dispersion (milling or crushing ingredients for dry mixing, homogenization of liquids to obtain stable emulsions), 5. Portion control (slicing cold-cuts, bread, cakes). 6. Obtaining pieces and particles of defined shapes (cubing meat for stew, cutting pineapple to obtain the familiar wheel-shaped slices, cutting dough to make cookies). ¢. Mechanism of Size Reduction: 1. Compression and shear are the two types of force involved in size reduction of solids. 2. Impact, sometimes given as a third type is, in fact, strong compression applied for a very short time. 3. When such forces act on a solid particle, elastic or plastic deformation occurs, depending ‘on the material 4, As the deformation reaches a certain limit value determined by the nature and structure of the solid (mechanical strength), the particle breaks along certain planes (planes of failure). 5. In any size reduction operation, all the types of force are usually involved, to different exte. 4. Size Reduction of Solids, Equipment and Methods: Impact mills © The principal representative of this class is the hammer mill. + The crushing elements are hammers fitted on a high-speed rotor inside a cylindrical chamber. * The chamber walls may be smooth or lined corrugated breaker plates. F: A typical multistage size Decorated by-_farid Ahmed.24 FSN22320T: Food Processing Methods 3.2.1- Crushing: 4.2-Crushing Crushing refers to the pressing, grinding or pounding of an item into smaller particles, a powder, ora paste. i Feed Va /2—~\ Clearance adjust- (57) ment and overload ‘compression spring Product Fig: traditional stone mill a. Asingle disk mill. 'b. A double disk mill. Examples of Size Reduction of Solids in Food Processing: Cereals, Rice, wheat, maize etc, Chocolate. Coffee beans. Oil Seeds and Nuts. Sugar Cane. SANK Fig: Disk mills. 3.2.2- Grinding: Grinding is a unit operation widely used in the food industry & designed to reduce the size of materials. 1. Dry grinding: Dry grinding is a size reduction process used to create an end product or have that ground material added to others. 2. Wet grinding: Wet grinding is a grinding process under addition of water, emulsion or oilS\223T: Food Processing Methods 25 3.2.3- What is homogenization: 2 The heterogeneous fluid product is forced to pass * Homogenization through a small hole by applying high pressure. As a result of micronized particles passing through the hole at high speed, the surface area increases and they become homogeneous permanently. This process applied is defined as "homogenization". The homogenization machine is called homogenizer. a. Industrial High-Pressure Homogenizer: It is used in the milk and dairy products industry, food and beverage industry, chemical and petrochemical industry, cosmetics industry, medicines and pharmaceutical industry, and biotechnology. b. Benefits of using homogenizer: Prevents sedimentation in fluid products, Ensures desired viscosity values for the product, Adds value to the product by improving the properties of the product, Homogenized milk can be produced from milk and dairy products by preventing the formation of fat layer. ‘© Improves the taste and texture of beverages, © Reduces the need for additives as it provides high stability, ‘+ Provides high quality color characteristics, ‘© Makes the milk look whiter, ‘© Facilitates digestion as it increases the surface area of food and drinks, ‘© Ensures the desired consistency for the creams and lotions. ©. Use areas of Homogenizer: © Milk and dairy products: milk, yogurt butter, ice cream, cream cheese, baby food, puddings, © Food and beverage products: Fruit juice, ketchup, mayonnaise, honey, molasses, soy milk, jelly, ginkgo drink, ‘© Chemical and petrochemical industry: paint, detergent, grease, wax, resin, fuel oil, lubricating oil © Cosmeties industry: Creams, toothpaste, lotion, liposomes, shampoo, perfume, polisher, * Medicines and pharmaceutical industry: Vaccine, antibiotic, syrup, vitamin, protein, mineral, enzyme, liposome. © Biotechnology: Protein, bacteria, yeast, virus, algae, collagen peptide. 4. Ice Cream Homogenizer: Ice cream homogenizers are used in the ice cream production process. It prolongs the shelf life of ice cream and minimizes the icing problem. Decorated by-_farid Ahmed.26 FSN2232 Fod Processing Methods Milk Homogenizer: It increases the viscosity of the milk, and as a result, homogenized milk with more consistency is obtained. It is used in processes related to yogurt, and dairy 3.2.3- Atomization: ‘The process of converting an analyte to a free gaseous atom is called atomization. Converting an aqueous analyte into a free atom requires to evaporate the solvent, volatilize the analytes and if necessary, dissociate the analyte into free atoms. Desolvating an aqueous solution of CuCl, for example, leaves solid particulates of CuCh. Converting the particulate CuCI2 to gas phase atoms of Cu and Cl requires thermal energy. CuCh(aq)-+CuCh(s)+Cu(g)+2Ch(g). (roe armel Mehdi Fond Ans page] ‘a, What is atomization of liquid? Atomization can be defined as the breakup of a liquid stream into fine particles such as a spray. Atomization refers to the process of breaking up bulk liquids into droplets. Common home atomizers you may be familiar with include shower heads, perfume sprays, garden hoses, and deodorant or hair sprays. A classic example of atomization occurring naturally involves pouring liquid from a pitcher. 'b. What is the purpose of atomization? Atomization refers to breaking bonds in some substance to obtain its constituent atoms in gas phase. By extension, it also means separating something into fine particles, for example: process of breaking bulk liquids into small droplets. fall under gravity Died panies tat Dried partichoy collected ms Decorated by- Sarid Ahmed.FS\22S21: Food Processing Methods 27 3.3- Slicing and Chopping: 3.3.1-Slicing: In slicing, regular pieces of material are obtained. Slicing equipment consists of rot ing or reciprocating blades which cut the food when it passes beneath. e.g., for slicing meat products, the material is held on a carriage as it travels across the blade. Hard fruits, such as apples, are simultaneously sliced and de-cored as they are forced over stationary knives inside a tube. 3.3.2-Chopping: Many products require the breaking down of raw materials into small particles (comminution). This ‘can be achieved by chopping. Chopping into a coarse pulp is applied to meat, fruits and vegetables. In chopping, the material is placed in a slowly rotating bow! and subjected to a set of blades rotating at high speed. 3.3.3-Cutters and choppers: ‘© Cutting and chopping are size reduction operations based on shearing through the use of sharp- edged moving elements (knives, blades). The term ‘cutting’ is usually reserved for operations resulting in particles with fairly regular geometric forms (cubes, juliennes, slices), while the term “chopping” is applied mainly to random cutting, '* The variety of cutting machines used in the food industry is vast. 3.4- Emulsification: Dk ma ‘An Emulsion is a mixture of two on more Liquids that are normally immiscible owing to liquid-liquid phase separation. OR, Emulsification is defined as a process of dispensing one liquid is another immiscible liquid. 3.4.1- Definition of Emulsification: * An emulsion contains droplets of one liquid dispersed in another, the two liquids being immiscible. * Immiscible liquids do not mix together, e.g. oil floats on the surface of water when mixed. * An emulsion consists of: ‘© Acontinuous phase: the phase or medium in which the dispersed phase is suspended and. © A dispersed phase: the phase that is disrupted or finely divided within the emulsion. onan apersed phase ester ‘Aner nomogertzation ‘Eman Decorated by-_farid Ahmed.28 FSN2232: Fod Processing Methods 3.4.2. An emulsifier-the negotiator? ‘The emulsifier is present at the interface between the dispersed phase and the continuous phase and keeps them apart. They are molecules that have two different ends: A hydrophilic (water-loving) end that associates with water but not with oils. A hydrophobic (water-hating) end that associates with oils but not with water. Water Microscopic view of emulsifier in an oil-in-water emulsion 3.4.3- Functions of an emulsifier: > Facilitate emulsion formation: ‘© Adsorbs at the interface between two immiscible liquids such as oil and water. © Lowers the interfacial tension between two liquids so that one liquid can spread more easily around. > Promotes emulsion stability: © Forms a stable, coherent interfacial film which prevents coalescence of the dispersed emulsion droplets the other. 3.4.4- Common food emulsifiers: © Egg yolks used in mayonnaise and hollandaise sauces. © Casein proteins in milk and butter. © Fine particles of ground dry mustard used in sauces and salad dressings. © Proteins such as egg yolk are good emulsifiers. Proteins contain both hydrophobic and hydrophilic sections in the same molecule. ‘© Proteins denature & then adsorb at the interface and interact to form a stable interfacial film 3.4.5- Types of Food Emulsion: 1. Oilin-water (o/w) emulsion: © Oil droplets are dispersed in water, e.g. milk, cream, mayonnaise, salad dressings. 2. Water-in-oil (w/o) emulsion: ‘© Droplets of water are dispersed in oil, e.g. butter, margarine. 3.4.6- Factors affecting Emulsion Stability: 1. Emulsifier: ‘© Good emulsifiers can form stable interfacial films produce stable emulsions. Decorated by- Sarid Ahmed.SX22RAMT: Food Processing Methods 29 2. Droplet size: ‘+ Larger droplets are more likely to coalesce: (© eg. large oil droplets tend to rise to the surface large oil droplets cause the emulsion to break. 3. Use of acidic ingredients: ‘+ Reduce the stability of the interfacial film. 4. Viscosity of the emulsion: ‘+ If the emulsion is thick, the molecules within the system have less movement and take longer for the 2 phases to separate, ‘© Thickeners such as gums, pectin or gelatin can be added to emulsions to increase the viscosity of the system. ‘Temperaturs © Most emulsions are broken under freezing conditions ©. The formation of ice crystals disrupts the interfacial films ‘© Heating disrupts emulsions: © When the emulsion is warmed, the oil droplets become more fluid and coalescence is more likely to occur. 6. Shaking: ‘© Violent shaking disrupts emulsions: © Eg. Cream is converted to butter by churning. 3.4.7- Example of emulsification: i. Mayonnaise: ‘© The main ingredients of mayonnaise are oil (the dispersed phase), vinegar (the continuous phase) and egg yolk. ‘© Egg yolk contains lecithin which acts as an effective emulsifier. ‘* The lecithin holds the oil & water (ie. vinegar) together & stops them from separating out. Milk: ‘© Milk is an emulsion with fat globules (particles) dispersed in an aqueous (watery) environment. ‘© The fat droplets of milk do not coalesce as they are stabilized by a milk fat globule ‘membrane (a protein). ‘+ About 80% of the milk proteins is casein protein. ‘© Caseins are not soluble in water and exist as small particles. © Caseins act as an emulsifier in milk and butter. ‘© caseins contain both hydrophobic and hydrophilic sections so they can also adsorb at the oil water interface to form a stable film which prevents coalescence of emulsion droplets. iii, Butter: ‘© Butter is a concentrated form of milk produced through churning of pasteurized cream, ‘© Butter contains 80-82% of milk fat. ‘© Chuming breaks the fat globule membrane so that the emulsion is broken and the fat coalesces. Decorated by-_forid Ahmed.30 row : Food Processing Methods ‘© Chuming tums the original oil-in-water emulsion in milk to a water-i butter is made. 3.5- Peeling: 3.5.1 Peeling of fruits and vegetables: Fruits and vegetables are processed either as whole or into small pieces by size reduction. Size reduction involves peeling, coring and sizing. Peeling is done to remove unwanted or inedible ‘material and to improve the appearance of the final product using a peeler. ‘There are five main methods of peeling: ‘They are flash peeling (e.g. for root crops). Knife peeling (e.g, for citrus fruits). Abrasion peeling (e.g. for potato). Caustic peeling (e.g. for guava, orange segments), and Flame peeling (e.g. onion and garlic). yee (OR) 3.5- Peeling: (04 Psi: Peeling of fruits and vegetables is frequently carried out in association with cleaning. 1. Steam Peeling: a ‘* Steam is particularly suited to root crops. ‘© The units are exposed to high-pressure steam for a fixed time and then the pressure is released causing steam to form under the surface of the skin, hence loosening it such that it can be removed with a water spray. 2. Lye Peeling: © 1-2% alkali solution can be used to soften the skin which can again be removed by water sprays. © There is, however, a danger of damage to the product. 3. Abrasion peeling: ‘© Abrasion peeling employs carborundum rollers or rotating the product in a carborundum. lined bow! followed by washing away the loosened skin. ‘© Itis effective but here is a danger of high product loss by this method. Mechanical Peeling: ‘* Mechanical knives are suitable for peeling citrus fruits. Flame peeling: ‘* Flame peeling is useful for onions in which the outer layers are burnt off and charred skin is removed by high-pressure hot water. 3.6-Screening of solids (removing): Need to add Semi fais nme Decorated by-_farid Ahmed.FS\22320T: Food Processing Methods 31 3.7- Filtration: (247. tren 3.7.1- Filtration (What is filtration?) It may be defined as a process of separation of solids from a fluid by passing the same through a porous medium that retains the solids but allows the fluid to pass through ‘Terms used in filtration: ‘© Slurry - Suspension to be filtered. © Filter -medium used to retain solid. Filter cake - Accumulated solids on the filter. Filtrate- Clear liquid passing through the filter. 3.7.2 Process filtration: © Pores of filter medium are smaller than size of particles to be separate. © Filter medium (filter paper) is placed on a support (mesh). © Slurry is placed over the filter medium. * Duc to pressure difference across the filter, fluid flows through the filter medium. * So, solids are trapped on the surface of the filter medium Gravity is acting over the liquid medium. 3.7.3- Application of filtration: > Production of sterile products. > Membrane filters. > Production of bulk drugs. > Production of liquid dosage. > Efffuents and waste water treatment. 3.7.4- Mechanism of filtration: * Solids having the momentum move along the path of streaming flow and strike (impinge) the filter medium. * Thus, the solids are retained on the filter medium, ‘+ Particles become entwined (entangled) in the masses of fibres (of cloths with fine hairy surface or porous felt) due to smaller size of particles than the pore size. © Thus, solids are retained within filter medium. © Entanglement Attractive forces Solids are retained on the filter medium as a result of attractive force between particles and filter medium, as in case of electrostatic filtration. (OR), 3.7.4. Mechanism of filtration: 1. Straining: Similar to sieving, i.., partides of larger size can't pass through smaller pore size of filter medium. 2. Impingement: Solids having the momentum move along the path of streaming flow and strike (impinge) the filter medium. Thus, the solids are retained on the filter medium, Decorated by-farid Ahmed.32 . Entanglement: P: FS\22320T; Food Processing Methods les become entwined (entangled) in the masses of fibres (of cloths with fine hairy surface or porous felt) due to smaller size of particles than the pore size. Thus, solids are retained within filter medium. Attractive forces: Solids are retained on the filter medium as a result of attra force between particles and filter medium, as in case of electrostatic filtration Diffusion Interception Sieving Particle 3.7.5- Factors influencing filtration: Properties of solid in slurry. Rate of formation of filter cake especially in early stage of filtration. Properties of s Properties of liquids: o Density. © Viscos © Corrosiveness. Objectives Temperature. Whether the solid or liquid or both are to be collected. ‘Temperature of suspension. Particle shape, Particle size, Particle charge, Density, Particle size distribution Rigidity or compressibility of solid under pressure. ‘Tendency of particle to flocculate or adhere together. 3.7.6- Material used as filter media: * Woven material — Made up of wool, silk, metal or synthetic fibres (rayon, nylon etc.) ‘These include. © Wire screening and © Fabrics of cotton, wool & nylon. Wire screening e.g. stainless steel is durable, resistance to plugging and easily cleaned. Cotton is a common filter, however, Nylon is superior for pharmaceutical use, since it is unaffected by mold, fungus or bacteria and has negligible absorption properties. Decorated by-_farid Ahmed.S222: Food Processing Methods 33 3.8- Membrane separation: 228 en Membrane separations are rate-controlled processes, based on the preferential permeation or rejection of various solute molecules in semipermeable polymer or inorganic membranes. Mechanical pressure is the driving force through the thin membranes, although concentration or ionic charge differences may be utilized in some membrane separations. * Membrane separations are classified according to the size of the molecule or the particle being separated from a solution or suspension. * The following membrane separation processes are applied to the food processing industry: (© Reverse osmosis: ions and molecules 0.1—1 nm (water desalting), Nanofiltration: molecules 0.5-10 nm (whey desalting), Ultrafiltration: macromolecules 1-100 nm (protein recovery), Microfiltration: particles 0.5-3 um (removal of microorganisms). 200 3.9- Centrifugation: 0.59. Courtugaion, 3.9.1- What is centrifugation? A centrifuge is a device for separating particles from a solution according to their size, shape, density, viscosity of the medium and rotor speed. In a solution, particles whose density is higher ‘than that of the solvent sink (sediment), and particles that are lighter than it floats to the top. The greater the difference in density, the faster they move. If there is no difference in density, the particles stay steady. 3.9.2- Fundamentals of Centrifugation: + A centrifuge is used to separate particles or macro molecules: Cells, Subcellular ‘components, Proteins, Nucleic acids. ‘* Basis of separation: Size-Shape-Density. co Size: It has the basis that as much lesser the size will be, more the particle will be towards the base. © Shape: the shape of particle ex-circular particles will settle down easily as compared to polygonal shape particles. © Density: this component is main play of centrifugation principle, denser the object, lower the settling. 3.9.3- How does it work? * Utilizes density difference between the particles / macro molecules and the medium in which these are dispersed. * Dispersed systems are subjected to artificially induced gravitational fields. 3.9.4- Principle of Centrifugation: The centrifuge works on the principle of increasing effective gravity (g's) to enhance the rate of settling of suspended particles more dense than the buffer. Decorated by- Farid Ahmed.34 FSA22320T: Food Processing Methods Effective gravity increases as you increase the radius of your centrifuge arms, or with the square of the rate of rotation. Force = mass x radius x (rotation rate)? After centrifuging, the liquid is called "supernatant" and the solids at the bottom of your tube are called "pellet. 3.95- Principle of Sedimentation: ‘Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained, and come to rest against a barrier. |— Low density |— Medium density |— High density 3.9.6- Low-speed centrifuge: i. Most laboratories have a standard low-speed centrifuge used for routine sedimentation of heavy particles. ‘The low-speed centrifuge has a maximum speed of 4000-5000rpm. These instruments usually operate at room temperatures with no means of temperature control. . Two types of rotors are used in it: © Fixed angle. © Swinging bucket Vv. It is used for sedimentation of red blood cells until the particles are tightly packed into a pellet and supernatant is separated by decantation 3.9.7- High-speed centrifuges: 1. High-speed centrifuges are used in more sophisticated biochemical applications, higher speeds and temperature control of the rotor chamber are essential. 2. The high-speed centrifuge has a maximum speed of 15,000-20,000 RPM. 3. The operator of this instrument can carefully control speed and temperature which is required for sensitive biological samples. 4. Three types of rotors are available for high-speed centrifugation: © Fixed angle. ‘© Swinging bucket. Vertical rotors. 3.9.8- Differential Pelleting (differential centrifugation): ‘+ Itis the most common type of centrifugation employed. ‘© Tissue such as the liver is homogenized at 32 degrees in a sucrose solution that contains buffer. ‘* The homogenate is then placed in a centrifuge and spun at constant centrifugal force at a constant temperature. Decorated by-_farid Ahmed.FS\22324T: Food Processing Meth 35 '* After some time, a sediment forms at the bottom of a centrifuge called pellet and an overlying solution called supernatant. ‘+ The overlying solution is then placed in another centrifuge tube which is then rotated at higher speeds in progressing steps. 3.9.9- Applications of Centrifugation: 1. To separate two miscible substances. 2. To analyze the hydrodynamic properties of macromolecules. 3. Purification of mammalian cells. 4, Fractionation of subcellular organelles (including membranes/membrane fractions) Fractionation of membrane vesicles. 5. Removing fat from milk to produce skimmed milk. 6. Separating particles from an air-flow using cyclonic separation. 7. The clarification and stabilization of wine, 8 Separation of urine components and blood components in forensic and research laboratories. 9. Aids in the separation of proteins using purification techniques such as salting out, e.g ammonium sulfate precipitation. 3.10- Extraction: 3.10.1- Food Extraction: © Extraction is an example of a separation technique. It can split two components, separate them apart. ‘* Imagine you have a mixture of components A and B (for example orange (A) with flavors inside (B), or a vanilla bean pod (B) with vanilla flavor (A). © We'd like to take B out of A. However, A and B are very well mixed, we can’t wait for B to settle out, or wait for A to evaporate. © Inextraction B is removed from A by adding a third component C (the rum in the case of orange and vanilla extracts). This third component will ‘pull’ B out of A. 3.10.2 When to use Extraction: > There are a lot of different separation techniques. Some techniques (such as distillation) use heat to separate two components. Because of the heat, one of the components will evaporate, whereas the other one will remain behind. >» However, if your components are sensitive to heat, distillation is not suitable. In a lot of those cases extraction is a good alternative. > Since a lot of food components (especially flavours) are heat sensitive, extraction is used quite often in the food industry. 3.10.3- Types of Food Extraction: ‘There are different types of extraction, the two main ones being liquid-liquid and liquid-solid extraction. ‘A. In liquid-liquid extraction the component you want to transfer (called the solute) sits in a liquid. Decorated by- Farid Ahmed.