Types of vector

All physical quantities are either scalar or vector quantities:

 A vector quantity has both magnitude (size) and direction.
 A scalar quantity has magnitude only.
Table2.1. some examples of vector and scalar quantities
Vector quantities Scalar quantities
Forces (including weight) Distance
Displacement Speed
Velocity Mass
Acceleration Energy
Momentum Temperature
Representing vectors
All vector quantities must include a direction. There are two methods of vector representation.
1. Geometrical Method
 Geometrically a vector is represented by the directed line segment i.e., by a line to
which a direction has been assigned with an arrow-head in the direction of the
vector and whose length is proportional to the magnitude of the vector.
 To represent a vector geometrically, a line is drawn parallel to the direction of the
vector and put an arrow on the line along the direction of the vector.
 Vectors can be represented by arrows or lowercase bold face.
 The magnitude (size) of the vector is shown by the length of the arrow.
 The direction of the arrow represents the direction of the vector.

Fig.2.1 A vector has size (magnitude) and direction.

 If the vector represents a displacement from point A to point B, it can also be denoted as:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .
For example, a displacement of 8 km would not be enough information. We must write 8km
South.

2. Analytical Method
 In this method vector is represented in the terms of unit vectors ( ̂ ̂ ̂)

Types of vector
There are several different types of vector to consider.

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 [Link] vector
A position vector represents the position of an object in relation to another point.

Fig.2.2 Position vectors

From the above figure we have B is 20 km North East of A or B is 20e km from A on a
bearing of .
 Bearings are specified as an angle going clockwise from north.
 The vector can be given in polar form;
 Where angle is given from the positive x-axis, going anticlockwise.
 The angle can be in degrees or radians.
 The vector B from A is: B = (20, )
 The vector can also be given in component form;
 Where it is given in terms of the components in the x, y and z directions.
 The vector B is: B = (14.1 km, 14.1 km, 0 km)
2. Unit vector

 Unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and points in a particular direction.

 It is used to specify the direction only.
 Unit vector is represented by putting a cap/hat () over the quantity.
 The unit vector in the direction of is denoted by ̂ and defined by
̂ | |̂ (2.1)
| |
Fig.2.3 contains three examples of unit vectors, one each for displacement, force and
acceleration. Unit vectors can also have direction. There are three unit vectors which are used to
specify direction, as shown in Fig.2.4:
 unit vector i is 1 unit in the x-direction
 unit vector j is 1 unit in the y-direction
 unit vector k is 1 unit in the z-direction

Fig.2.3 Unit vectors Fig.2.4 Unit vectors i, j and k

3. Negative of a vectors
The vector whose magnitude is the same as that of but the direction is opposite to that
of is called the negative of and is written as:
⃗ (2.2)

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 Fig.2.5 Negative of a vectors
4. Equal Vectors
Two vectors are said to be equal if
 Their magnitudes are equal
 They are parallel and
 They have the same sense of direction. They needn’t have the same initial point.
In the Fig.2.6 shows the lengths of AB equal to length of CD and AB and CD have the same
sense of direction.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (2.3)
So here ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are two equal vectors.

Fig.2.6 Equal vectors

[Link] vector
 Collinear vectors are vectors limited to only one dimension.
 Two vectors are said to be collinear if they are parallel to each other and act along the
same line.
 They can be in the same direction or opposite directions.

Fig.2.7 Collinear vectors

6. Zero vectors/Null vectors

 Vectors having zero magnitude are called zero or null vectors.

 It is denoted by ⃗ .
 Its initial and final point coincide then given as ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and
 Its direction is indeterminate.
[Link] vector
 The vectors in the same two-dimensional plane.
 The vectors at different angles to each other.
For example, Fig.2.8 shows two displacement vectors when viewed below.

Fig.2.8 Coplanar displacement vectors

A more complex example might involve three forces acting on a cube as shown in Fig.2.9below.
 A and B are both in the same plane ( ) so they might be described as
coplanar. C is in a different plane and so is not coplanar.

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  B and C are in the same plane ( ) so they might be described as coplanar. A
is in a different plane and so is not coplanar.
 A and C are in the same plane ( ) so they might be described as coplanar. B
is in a different plane and so is not coplanar.
A, B and C cannot be considered to be coplanar with each other as they are in different planes.

Fig.2.9 Three vector forces acting on a cube

Resolution of vectors
Resolving -splitting one vector into two component vectors. Two components with:-
 The horizontal as x direction and vertical as y direction.
 They have the same effect as the original vector when combined.
 They made to form the sides of a right angled triangle.
 They make up the opposite and adjacent sides of the triangle but the vector as
hypotenuse.
Worked Example 2.1
Resolve the velocity vector of 25.0 m/s as shown in Fig.2.10, into two components.

[Link] vector of magnitude 25.0m/s

Solution:
We can then use trigonometry to find their relative sizes.

Fig.2.11 Component vectors of the main vector are shown in blue

Then, ,

Then, ,

( ) direction of given vector

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 Fig.2.12 Component vectors as a right-angled triangle
Pythagoras’s theorem
For a right-angled triangle, Pythagoras’s theorem states:
√ (2.4)
Then it is possible to find the magnitude of ( )

√ √( ) ( ) =
Worked example 2.2
What is the a) magnitude and b) direction of the two coplanar vectors in Fig.2.13?

Fig.2.13 Two perpendicular coplanar vectors form a right-angled triangle.

Solution: Using Eq. (2.4)

a)
√ √
b)

( )

Review questions
1. Explain what it means to resolve a vector.
2. Draw simple vector diagrams and resolve them into two components.
a) 60 N at an angle of from the horizontal.
b) 45 m/s at an angle of from the horizontal.
c) 1900 km at an angle of from the vertical.

Vector addition and subtraction

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 A. Adding vectors
Vectors can be added geometrically or analytically.
1. Graphical method/Geometrical Method
 The first technique for vector addition involves carefully drawing diagrams.
 This applied to collinear or coplanar vectors (two-dimensional only).
There are slightly different techniques that could be used.
a) Scale diagrams
Whenever you are drawing vector diagrams you should draw them to a scale of your own
devising. Scale diagrams are very simple:
 Select a scale for your vectors.
 Draw them to scale, one after the other (in any order), lining them up head to tail
ensuring the directions are correct.
 The resultant will then be the arrow drawn from the start of the first vector to the tip of
the last.

Fig.2.14 Scale diagram showing a resultant vector (the red arrow) for a series of coplanar
vectors.
(2.5)
NOTE:-
 If you end up where you started, then all the vectors cancel out and there is no resultant
vector.
b) Triangle Law of vector Addition
Let us consider two vectors and ⃗ as shown Fig.2.15 below.

Fig.2.15
 To get the sum of these two vectors ( ⃗ ), shift any two vectors parallel to itself until
the tail of one vector is at the head of another vector.
Here we place the vector ⃗ in such a way that its tail touch the head of vector which is shown
in Fig.2.16

Fig.2.16
Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗

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 Then the line joining the tail of and head of vector ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ gives the sum of vector and ⃗
Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Fig.2.17
+⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (2.6)
This is known as the triangle law of vector addition.

 It involves drawing the two coplanar vectors head to tail.

 The two vectors must again be drawn to a scale.
 The resultant will be the missing side (red one Fig.2.18 and 2.19) from the triangle.
 If the vectors are perpendicular, the triangle will be a right-angled triangle

Fig.2.18 Two perpendicular coplanar vectors Fig.2.19 Two non-perpendicular coplanar vectors

c) Parallelogram rule of vector addition

 Let there are two vectors ⃗ ⃗ in such a way that they have common point initial and
different direction as shown in the Fig.2.20.
 Let us complete a parallelogram with ⃗ ⃗ as its adjacent sides

Fig.2.20
 Then the diagonal of parallelogram passing through their common point will represent in
magnitude and direction the resultant of the vectors ⃗ ⃗
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ (2.7)
 Use for two coplanar vectors.
 Drawing the two vectors with the same starting point.
 The two vectors to be the sides of the parallelogram.
 The resultant will be the diagonal of the parallelogram.
2. Analytical Method /Mathematical Method
 It is important method to find the magnitude and direction of resultant.
Let the two vectors ⃗ be represented in magnitude and direction by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
respectively.

Fig.2.21

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Considering OP and OQ as two adjacent sides, parallelogram OPCQ is constructed. There are two
ways to find magnitude and direction of resultant vector.

i. Adding vectors by using the law of cosines

 The magnitude of resultant vector ⃗ is calculated by using cosine law and again by using sine
law it is possible to find the direction.
The proof of the law of cosines trivial if we make use of the dot product.

Fig.2.21(a) Law of cosines as applied to . (b) Law of cosine as applied to .

( ) ( )

( )
That is,
√ (2.8)
Since ( )
√ (2.9)
Similarly,
And, √ (2.10)
Since, ( )
, √ (2.11)
Law of sines
Consider a triangle formed by vectors A, B, and C such that
(2.12)
Take the vector product of both the sides os Eq. 2.12 by ; that is
(2.13)
Since , Eq. 2.13 takes form
(2.14)
Or
( ) ( ) (2.15)
Divide both sides of Eq. 2.15 by ABC
( ) ( )
That is, (2.16)
And also take the vector product of both the sides of Eq, 2.12 by ; that is
(2.17)
Since , Eq.2.17 takes form
(2.18)

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Or ( ) ( ) (2.19)
Divide both sides of Eq. 2.19 by ABC
( ) ( )
That is, (2.20)

Then ingeneral we have,

( ) ( ) ( )
(2.21)

Which is law of sine.

Some special Case
Case I: When ⃗ ⃗ are in the same direction, it means
√
√( )
(2.22.a)
In this case resultant is maximum.
With direction of,
(2.22.b)
Case II: When ⃗ ⃗ are perpendicular to each other, it means,
√
√ (2.4.a)
With direction of,
( ) (2.4.b)
Case III: When ⃗ ⃗ are in opposite direction, it means,
√
√
√( )
( ) (2.23.a)
In this case resultant will be minimum.
With direction of,
(2.23.b)
Case IV: When two vectors are of the same magnitude,(| ⃗ | |⃗ | )
√
√ ( )
√ ( )

(2.24.a)
With direction of,

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 (2.24.b)
If two vectors are of equal magnitude then the resultant of two equal vectors bisects the angle
between them.
ii. Adding vectors by using component method
 Component method is the method of adding vectors that are in the same axis.
Fig.2.22 shows two vectors and ⃗ and their vector sum along with the x- and y-components of
all three vectors. You can see from the diagram that the x-component of the vector sum is
simply the sum ( ) of the x-components of the vectors being added. The same is true for
the y-components. In symbols,
( ⃗⃗ ⃗)
The magnitude of R is given as
√ (2. 4.a)
Direction of resultant is given as
( ) (2. 4.b)

.
Fig.2.22 Finding the vector sum (resultant) of and using components
For two vectors in space in the form;
̂ ̂ ̂ and ⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ ,then

⃗ ⃗ ( )̂ ( )̂ ( )̂ (2. 25)
⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂ , where and has
magnitude of:
|⃗ | √ (2.26.a)

Fig.2.23
Direction is given by directional cosines of that vector ⃗ makes with the positive X,
Y, Z axes are given as
(2.26.b)
|⃗ | |⃗ | |⃗ |

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 B. Subtraction of Vectors
Subtraction of vectors can be defined in terms of addition of two vectors.
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ( ⃗)
Let ⃗ ⃗ are at an angle as shown in the Fig.2.24 below

Fig.2.24
To get ( ⃗ ⃗ ), first we will draw a vector ⃗ as shown in Fig.2.25 below. Then the angle
between ⃗ ⃗ will be,( ).

Fig.2.25
Then the magnitude of ( ⃗ ⃗ ) is given as,
| ⃗ ( ⃗ )| √ ( )
|⃗ ⃗ )| √ (2.10)
Worked Example
What is the property of two vectors and ⃗ , if
A. | ⃗| | ⃗|
B. ⃗ ⃗

Solution:
A. We know that
| ⃗| √
And
| ⃗| √
According to the given problem
√ √
Which on solving gives
i.e., the vectors and ⃗ are perpendicular to each other.
B. Given that ⃗ ⃗
i.e., 2 ⃗ or ⃗
i.e., ⃗ is a null vector.
Multiplication of vectors
1) Multiplying a vector by a Scalar

If we multiply vector by a scalar a we get a new vector ⃗ , i.e.

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 ⃗ =a (2.27)
 ⃗
If a is positive then vector and have same direction.
 If a is negative then vector ⃗ and have opposite direction.
 The scalar is less than one the magnitude of new vector reduced.
 The magnitude of ⃗ is the product of the magnitude of and the absolute value of a.
2) The Scalar Product (or the Dot Product)
The scalar product of the two vectors and ⃗ is denoted by ⃗ and is defined as:
⃗ (2.28)
where A and B are the magnitudes of the two vectors and ⃗ , and θ is the angle between them,
see Fig.2.26. The two angles θ and could be used, since their cosines are the same. As
we see from Eq.2.26, the result of ⃗ is a scalar quantity, and is known as the dot product
from its notation. Also, we get:

⃗ ={ (2.29)

According to Fig.2.26, the dot product can be regarded as the product of the magnitude of one of
the vectors with the scalar component of the second along the direction of the first. That is:

[Link] left part shows two vectors and ⃗ , with an angle θ between them. The middle
and the right parts show the component of each vector along the other.

⃗ ( )= ( ) (2.30)
This indicates that scalar products obey the commutative and associative laws, so that:
⃗ =⃗ (Commutative law) (2.31)
(⃗ + ) = ⃗ (Associative law) (2.32)
By applying the definition of dot product to the unit vectors , , and ⃗ , we get the following:
⃗ ⃗ ( )( )
{ , (2.33)
⃗ ⃗ ( )( )
When two vectors are written in terms of the unit vectors , , and ⃗ , then to get their dot product,
each component of the first vector is to be dotted into each component of the second vector.
After that, we use Eq.2.31 to get the following:
⃗ ( ⃗ ) ( ⃗ )
= ( ) ( ) ( ⃗ )+ ( ) ( )
( ⃗ )+ (⃗ ) (⃗ ) (⃗ ⃗ )
According to Eq.2.31 we have:
⃗ (2.34)

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Thus, from Eqs. 2.26 and 2.31, we can generally write the dot product as follows:
⃗ = (2.35)
Scalar projrction
Conside the vectors ⃗,
The scalar projection of vectors A on to B is given by:
⃗
| | (2.36)
|⃗ | |⃗ |
Similarly the scalar projection of vectors B on to A is given by:
⃗
|⃗ | (2.37)
| | | |

3) The vector Product (or the Cross Product)

The vector product of the two vectors and ⃗ is denoted by ⃗ and defined as a third vector
whose magnitude is:
, (2.33)
where θ is the smaller angle between and ⃗ ( )
 The direction of is perpendicular to the plane that contains both and ⃗ .
 Determined by using the right-hand rule, see Fig.2.27.
According to right-hand rule, we allow the tail of to coincide with the tail of ⃗ , then the four
fingers of the right hand are pointed along and then “wrapped” into ⃗ through the angle θ. The
direction of the erect right thumb is the direction of , i.e. the direction of × ⃗ . Also, the
direction of is determined by the direction of advance of a right-handed screw as shown in
Fig.2.27.

Fig.2.27The vector product ⃗ is a third vector

that has a magnitude of and a
direction perpendicular to the plane containing the vectors ⃗ . Its sense is determined by
the right-hand rule or the direction of advance of a right-handed screw.

The vector product definition leads to the following properties:

1. The order of vector product multiplication is important; that is:
⃗ (⃗ ) (2.38)
which is unlike the scalar product and can be easily verified with the right-hand rule.
2. If is parallel to ⃗ (that is, θ = 0◦) or is antiparallel to ⃗ (that is, ), then:
⃗ = 0 (if is parallel or antiparallel to ⃗ ) (2.39)
3. If is perpendicular to ⃗ , then:
| ⃗ |=AB (if ⊥ ⃗ ) (2.40)
4. The vector product obeys the distributive law, that is:

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 (⃗ ) ⃗ (Distributive law) (2.41)
⃗
5. From the definition of the vector product and the unit vectors , , and , we get the
following relationships:
⃗ ⃗ (2.42)
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ (2.43)
The last relations can be obtained by setting the unit vectors , , and ⃗ on a circle, see Fig.2.28,
and rotating in a clockwise direction to find the cross product of one unit vector with another.
Rotating in a counterclockwise direction will involve a negative sign of the cross product of one
unit vector with another, that is:
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ (2.44)

[Link] clockwise and counterclockwise cyclic order for finding the cross product of
the unit vectors , , and ⃗ .
6. When two vectors and ⃗ are written in terms of the unit vectors , , and ⃗ , then the
cross product will give the result:
⃗ ( ⃗ ) ( ⃗ )
= ( ) ( ) ( ⃗ )+ ( ) ( )
( ⃗) (⃗ ) (⃗ ) (⃗ ⃗)
=0+ ⃗ ⃗ +0+
Then ⃗ ( ) ( ) ( )⃗ (2.45)
This result can be expressed in determinant form as follows:
⃗
⃗ | | | | | | ⃗| | (2.46)

Scalar triple product:Volume of a parallelopiped

The quantity ( ) is a scalar quantity. We can show that if A, B, and C are sides of a
parallelepiped then such a product represents the volume of the parallelepiped. Where the
volume is given as
( )( ) | | | || | [( ) ]
Or ( ) (2.47)
If the vectors in the product follow a cyclic order, we may write to be
( ) ( ) ( ) (2.48)
Since a scalar product is commutative,

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 ( ) ( ) ( ) (2.49)
That is the scalar triple product remains unchanged if the vectors are interchanged in a cyclic
order. We may also show that
( ) ( ) (2.50)

Fig.2.29. Volume of the parallelepiped in the terms of sides A, B, and C.

Applications of vectors
Some of the applications of vector are:-
 To analyzing forces on a bridge.
 To analyzing the motion of air plane.
 To programing motion or the position of an object in a computer game or animation.
 To displaying graphics.
 To modeling and planning trajectory of a space probe.
 To analyzing the motion of the planet.
 To analyzing the magnetic fields.

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