Innovation & Design:

Content:
● 5.1 Invention. ● 5.3 Strategies for innovation.

○ Drivers for invention. ○ Act of insight.

○ The lone inventor. ○ Adaptation and analogy.
○ Intellectual property. ○ Chance.
○ Strategies for protecting IP. ○ Technology transfer.
○ Shelved technologies. ○ Technology push / market pull.

● 5.2 Innovation. ● 5.4 Stakeholders in innovation and invention.

○ Innovation. ○ The inventor, product champion and entrepreneur.

○ Sustaining innovation. ○ Multidisciplinary approach to innovation.
○ Disruptive innovation.
○ Process innovation.
○ Architectural innovation.
○ Configurational innovation.
○ Diffusion and suppression.
Innovation & Design:

Content:
● 5.5 Product Life Cycle. ● 5.7 Innovation, design and marketing specifications..

○ Key stages of the product life cycle. ○ Target markets and target audiences.
○ Obsolescence. ○ Market segments.
○ Predictability. ○ Market analysis and user need.
○ Product versioning / generations. ○ Competition and research methods.
○ Design specifications.

● 5.6 Rogers characteristics of innovation and consumers.

○ Diffusion and innovation.

○ Impact on consumers adoption and innovation.
○ Social roots consumerism and the influence of social media.
○ Characteristics on adoption of an innovation.
○ Influence of trends and the media on consumer choice.
5.1: Invention:

Concepts and principles: Content:

○ Drivers for invention include personal motivation to

1. Drivers for invention express creativity/for personal interest, scientific or
2. The lone inventor technical curiosity, constructive discontent, desire to
3. Intellectual property (IP) make money, desire to help others.
4. Strategies for protecting IP: patents, trademarks, ○ The advantages and disadvantages of being a lone
design protection, copyright inventor.
○ Benefits of IP include differentiating a business from
5. First to market competitors, selling or licensing to provide revenue
6. Shelved technologies streams, offering customers something new and
different, marketing/branding, its value as an asset.
○ IP symbols and their application to products and
services: patent pending, trademark, registered
trademark, copyright, service mark (SM).
○ The effectiveness of strategies for protecting IP.
○ Reasons why some innovators decide not to protect
their IP and alternative strategies to ensure success.
○ Reasons why some patented inventions are shelved.
5.1: Invention and Design: Invention or Innovation - What’s the difference.

“Invention” can be defined as the creation of a product or introduction of a process for the
first time. “Innovation,” on the other hand, occurs if someone improves on or makes a
significant contribution to an existing product, process or service.
 5.1: Invention: Drivers for invention.

Drivers for invention include personal motivation to express creativity, or for personal interest, scientific or technical curiosity,
constructive discontent, the desire to help others, or simply they want to make money. These will all be explored in the following
slides.
Expressing creativity or personal interest:

While there are many fine examples of this type of driver for invention, none are
possibly as dramatic as The Kinesthetic Strandbeest sculptures designed and
created by Theo Jansen. The motivation behind these inventions is to express
creativity. His fantastic designs are purely driven by the wind.

Constructive Discontent:

James Dyson has been frustrated by many inefficiencies of conventional designs

and has created a number of groundbreaking re-designs, from vacuum cleaners,
to hand and hair dryers. The cyclonic bagless system for his vacuum cleaners,
and the airblade system for his hand dryers are two very good examples of his
constructive discontent with what was available at the time.

Dyson is quoted as saying, “analyse a situation

which would benefit from re-design, and work
out a strategy for improving it” - Good inventors
are always looking to improve on what we
currently have.
The old ‘bagged’ vacuum, and Dyson’s inventions.
 5.1: Invention: Drivers for invention.
Scientific curiosity: Desire to help others:

There are many inventors that have been driven by the desire
There are many people that would fit into this
to help others, but below are two great examples.
category, but here a few outstanding
examples: Thomas Edison - many different Illac Diaz created an ingenious solar light from old soda
inventions, but not as many as you think. bottles to bring natural light into the homes of some of the
poorest people in the Philippines.
Mike Ebeling helped transform the life of a seriously
John Logie Baird - TV paralysied artist through his companies invention.
Michael Faraday -
Electricity

Desire to make money:

Innovation and creative ideas are at the heart of most
successful businesses, but is it the main or sole objective for
the inventor to make money?
Another reason an inventor may be driven to make money is
for products or systems to develop, and further iterations are
made, the more profit the company will make, and therefore
more funding for research and development, meaning more
inventions and innovations.
5.1: Invention: The lone inventor.

The advantages and disadvantages of being a lone inventor:

An individual working outside or inside an organisation who is committed
to the invention of a novel product and often becomes isolated because
they are engrossed with their ideas that imply change and are resisted by
others.

Designers/Engineers/Inventors such as James Dyson, Trevor Bayliss and James Dyson - Bagless vacuum cleaner Trevor Bayliss - Clockwork radio
Clive Sinclair fit this description of the ‘lone inventor’ well.
When we imagine the creation of an object, be it a light bulb or an iPad,
we typically imagine a lone inventor, toiling away in a shed or basement
to build it. Simply put, a lone inventor is a creative champion who displays
creative passion in the business of invention and develops a product from
beginning to end. While the typical image we have of these creative
minds is sometimes true, it is not always the case.
Nikola Tesla - To much to write here. Clive Sinclair - Computers + transport

Lone inventors find it increasingly difficult to become successful as most new products are now extremely complex and rely on the
expertise from a variety of disciplines. Most designers work most of the time in teams which are multidisciplinary in nature with
individual specialists and expertise. By nature lone inventors often find it difficult to work in teams. They can be dogmatic, single
minded, and less flexible than team members. While it is true the vast majority of inventions are now done in design teams, there
will always be a place in the world for the ‘Lone Inventor’, who will come through with a truly groundbreaking, innovative solution.

An individual working outside or inside an organisation who is committed to the invention of a novel product and often
becomes isolated because they are engrossed with their ideas that imply change and are resisted by others.
5.1: Invention: The lone inventor.

Sir Clive Sinclair - 4 mins long Trevor Bayliss - 6 mins long

James Dyson - 11 mins long Nikola Tesla - 11 mins long

5.1: Invention: The lone inventor: Advantages and Disadvantages.

Advantages Disadvantages

○ Full control of the development of their invention. ○ Lack of business acumen.

○ Have ideas that are completely new and different, ○ May not comprehend or give sufficient care to the
sometimes revolutionary. marketing and sales of their invention.
○ They can be driven and fully focused on completing their ○ Their ideas, because of how different they are can often
invention. be resisted by society, customers or individuals.
○ Can find it difficult to find sufficient funding or investment
for their ideas.
○ Research and development costs can be expensive for
a lone investor.
○ Are usually isolated and can have no backing or
unbiased feedback for their inventions.
○ Trouble working in teams due to their emotional
investment in their ideas and inventions.
5.1: Invention: Intellectual property.

The benefits of Intellectual property include:

Differentiating from competitors - In a crowded

market being able to differentiate from your
competitors gives you an edge. Business want to
protect their designs and inventions and the
advantage of being different from others within the
same market.

Selling or licencing to increase revenue streams

Intellectual property rights are the legally - Many large companies will sell their consent under
recognised exclusive rights to creations of the licence or a franchise to use their branding, company
mind. Under IP law, the owners are granted name, products and IP in return for money or
something else of value.
certain exclusive rights to a variety of intangible
assets, such as musical, literary, and artistic works;
discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases, Marketing & Branding - In a crowded market a company’s brand can
symbols and designs. Common intellectual help attract loyalty and sales. Company’s will want to protect their
property rights include copyright, trademarks, brand from copying and imitation. Also a brand can have a value as
patents, industrial design rights, trade dress, and an asset - companies will purchase established brands to use their
in some jurisdictions, trade secrets. Different position in the market. This is a position and brand identity they will
countries offer different protections, and it depends want to protect. If a company is bringing a new product to market,
on where the IP is registered. they will also want to protect it from being copied.

Intellectual property rights are the legally recognised exclusive rights to creations of the mind.
 5.1: Invention: Strategies for protecting intellectual property.

An agreement from a government office to give someone the right to

Patent make or sell a new invention for a certain number of years - generally
20 years.

An indication that an application for a patent has been applied for but
Patent has not yet been processed. The marking serves to notify those
Pending copying the invention that they may be liable for damages (including
backdated royalties), once a patent is issued.
Companies can spend millions if not
billions on developing new products.
Trademark denotes a symbol, word, or words have been ‘reserved’ by a
To prevent
infringing on
competitors
their
from
Intellectual
Trademark TM company. However, in legal terms it's pretty meaningless.
property rights there are a number of
ways a company can protect its Essentially the same as a trademark, but this time has been registered
Registered
valuable assets. They will also
actively protect their interests and
sometimes it ends up in court.
Trademark ® with a government agency. The rights that are protected will depend on
where the trademark is registered, but they are enforceable in law.

A legal right that grants the creator of an original work exclusive

There is however a counterpoint

Copyright © ownership for its use and distribution. Usually for a limited time and
within geographical boundaries, copyright allows the creator to receive
compensation for their intellectual effort.
or alternative view to the idea
that everyone needs to protect
Service
their ideas for innovation and
invention to grow. Mark SM A trademark used to identify a service rather than a physical product.
5.1: Invention: Shelved technologies.

Reasons why some patented technologies are There was a lot of

public push back
shelved: when Apple glasses
were released.
Cost effectiveness - The technology is available, but the People were
cost using it in household products is too expensive for concerned about
their privacy being
consumers - Home use 3D printing is a good example. infringed.
The machines and consumables are very expensive for
‘hobby’ use, but this is rapidly changing. The Vision Pro is
there new big idea to
introduce
Social: Augmented Reality
○ The market is not ready for change. into the peoples
lives, but do you
○ The market perceives the product as unsafe - think it's a good
The Segway was set to revolutionise urban
transport, but it was very expensive to
driverless cars for example. idea?
purchase and has since stopped production
○ Cultural reasons Meta are now trying due to poor sales.
to reintroduce the
○ Privacy issues - google glasses concept of smart
glasses
Technology - The science and underpinning idea have
been developed, but the technology, materials, or
production methods are not resolved enough to introduce
the product to market - Flexible mobile phones for
example.
Timing - Strategic product release - The iPad could have
been released before the iPhone, but Apple did not want to
confuse the market by releasing those products in that 3D printing - The machines and filament were
order. expensive and slow when first introduced to the
public.
5.1: Innovation:

Concepts and principles: Content:

○ Reasons why few inventions become

1. Invention and innovation.
innovations.
2. Categories of innovation: sustaining innovation,
○ Examples of products within the categories of
disruptive innovation, process innovation.
innovation.
3. Innovation strategies for design: architectural
○ Examples where innovation strategies have
innovation, modular innovation, configurational
been used for products.
innovation.
4. Innovation strategies for markets: diffusion and
suppression.
5.2: Innovation: Innovation.

Innovation can be described as the creation of new devices, objects, ideas or procedures useful in completing human objectives.
Designers will be successful in the marketplace when they solve long-standing problems, improve on existing solutions or find a
“product gap”. The constant evaluation and redevelopment of products is key, with unbiased analysis of consumers and commercial
opportunities. In order for an invention to become an innovation, the idea of the product needs to be effectively communicated. The
communication can take many forms and be between many stakeholders.
The act of a business putting an invention into the marketplace and making a success does not necessarily make it an innovation.
The products we consider as innovative, have to make a real difference in the world.
Below are some very innovative people, some you may know, some you may not.

Ray Eames Coco Chanel Dieter Rams

Johnny Ives Elon Musk Margaret Calvert

5.2: Innovation: Innovation and Invention.

Invention can be defined as the creation of new devices,

objects, ideas, processes or systems that are useful for
humans. The process of invention is invariably preceded
by one or more discoveries that helped the inventor solve
their design problem. In common usage the term
‘invention’ is applied only to the production of new
materials or operable devices. The term ‘inventor’ is
applied to the person who has produced that new device
or material.
Credit for invention has frequently been claimed for someone who
conceived the idea, but the inventor is actually the person who not
only had the idea, but also worked the method of putting it into
practice. Leonardo Di Vinci conceived the idea of flight, and
created many sketches and drawings of his concept. However,
there is no evidence he actually proved his ideas. The invention of
powered flight and the aeroplane, through the application this
existing knowledge, was contentiously been credited to the Wright
brothers in 1903.
Many inventions take many hours of discovery and testing. Others
take the form of chance, and many others in collaboration with
other inventors ideas, thoughts, discoveries and hunches.

“Invention” can be defined as the creation of a product or introduction of a process for the first time. “Innovation,” on the
other hand, occurs if someone improves on or makes a significant contribution to an existing product, process or service.
5.2: Innovation: Innovation.

Reasons why few inventions become innovations - for an innovation to occur, something more than just the generation of a
creative idea is required. For innovation to occur, the idea must make a genuine difference to the human condition. An innovation
is a useful application of an invention or discovery that makes a difference to people’s lives, not all ‘inventions’ can make this
difference. Inventions often fail to make the transition from idea to the marketplace, and therefore into an ‘innovation’ for a number
of factors, some of these are outlined in the table below:

Marketability Low product demand ro not readily saleable.

Financial The inventor or company finds it hard to find suitable

support or enough funding to bring the product to market.

Inappropriate or not enough advertising to show the

Marketing product.

Need Is the product actually needed?

Price Value for money, cost compared to usefulness. Crowdfunding has substantially changed how products now get
developed and enter the marketplace. It has helped eliminate or
Resistance Does the product change or challenge routine? reduce the risk traditional investors would face. Small amounts of
to change Feelings of comfort for the customer. money from many people have negated the requirement of one
or two investors risking large amounts of money to bring new
Is there a level of uncertainty about the financial / products to market. This has meant a large number of products
Risk time investment in relation to learning the new that would not have found funding under the traditional model
product? can now get funding - Is this a good or bad thing?
5.2: Innovation: Sustaining innovation.

Sustaining innovation - Sustaining ideas and innovation

have to do with improving the current product by developing
the product and introducing new and improved generations
until it has reached the end of its life cycle. Normally, large
companies are good at sustaining innovation because their
resources, business processes and cultures are set up in a
way to sustain progressive improvement. Below are some
ways in which innovation can be sustained:

Feature fixes / Additions: Most next generation models At its basic level, sustaining innovation is about ‘milking’ the
come with a handful of fixes, upgrades and new features that popularity and success of the breakthrough product by
address previous gripes and complaints with the previous extending its life cycle as long as possible. Most breakthrough
generation. products will not last long without a sustained marketing and
promotional drive behind it. This sustained effort is where
Cost reductions: As sales volumes grow for a product, the profitability is maximised because unnecessary costs can be
costs of purchasing raw material or components decline in removed, and by continually improving and developing the
addition to design enhancements that simplify the product or product, or adding additional features you will always have a
production process to enable it to be sold for less. ready market to sell into.

Product line proliferation/expansion: At launch most new

products don’t have a full suite of products to meet each Sustaining innovation – A new or improved product that
end-users needs. As a fix for this, companies will fill out their meets the needs of consumers and sustains manufacturers.
product line by offering additional sizes, colours etc.
5.2: Innovation: Disruptive innovation.
Disruptive innovations are the sort of ‘big ideas’ that many of
us have in mind when we think of innovation. They are called
‘disruptive’ because they change the current market behaviour,
rendering existing solutions obsolete, and can bring previously
marginal customers and companies into the centre of attention.
The iPod radically changed the way we listen and buy music.
The iPod is a good example of disruptive innovation as it isn’t
about winning a technological race - iPod was nowhere near the
first MP4 player - but it delivered innovations to a set of
customers whose needs were largely being ignored by industry
leaders. It brought a compact device that could store large
volumes of data, along with stylist aesthetics and a convenient
method of purchasing music. Innovations are constantly occurring in every industry, but to be truly
disruptive an innovation must entirely transform a product or
solution. A disruptive innovation is often a simple, low-grade solution
than the existing solutions, and that’s more affordable and
accessible to a larger population, which opens it to an entirely new
market. This often upturns established industries and overthrows
existing market leaders.
Disruptive innovations typically take hold at the bottom of the
market, meeting the same needs as high-market solutions in a
simple and relatively cheap way. They are usually underrated at
first, and tend to be seen as “low-class.” But due to their low costs
and other advantages, they move quickly up the market and
eventually become more appealing than their sophisticated
competitors.
5.2: Innovation: Process innovation.

Process innovation generally refers to the implementation of a

new or significantly improved production or delivery method. It
may also be indirectly related to the company’s products and
services, for example in the form of support function processes
in HR or finance.
Process innovation can be done by applying new technology
or improved methods to a process and is often done to save
time, money, or to serve customers better. It often involves
new techniques, equipment, or software, and can often require
Car production in the 1930’s Modern car production.
a cultural or structural change as well.
In process innovation, the final product is usually not changed,
but the method of bringing out the product is improved.
An example of a process innovation is automated production
line for car manufacturing. The production line still produces
cars, but the process of how this is done has dramatically
change. Previously before the introduction of the production
line system, car manufacturing was a time consuming and
labour intensive process. Baggage handling - not so long ago. Baggage handling - modern system.

Process innovation – Is the implementation of a new, or significantly improved production or delivery method. This includes
significant changes in techniques, equipment, and/or software.
5.2: Innovation: Architectural innovation.

Architectural innovation refers to the innovation of an architecture of any

product that changes or modifies the way various components of the
systems link or relate to each other. The technology of the components
stays the same, but the configuration of the components is changed to
produce a new design.

An example of architectural innovation would be

desktop photocopiers.
Before the desktop photocopiers was devised,
there were stand-alone photocopiers. A
stand-alone photocopier is a single unit dedicated
to copying functions. This was the only option,
and it only favored big corporations. Now small
businesses do not need extra space for
photocopying. This explains why desktop
photocopiers are an architectural shift of the
stand-alone photocopiers. The desktop version
keeps the majority of the stand alone design, but
eliminates the unwanted stand and extra paper
draws.
Floor standing photocopier. Desktop version.

Architectural innovation – Innovations that change the architecture of a product, without changing its components.
5.2: Innovation: Modular innovation.

Modular innovation is where you maintain the architecture ( the body or housing of the
product) and modify the modules or components of the product. Modular innovation is
the opposite of architectural innovation.
Modular innovation is where the basic configuration stays the same, but one or more key
components are changed. This is generally done to make an existing product better or
enhance a product by offering a sense of customisation to the consumer. Taking the
drone above as an example, the basic structure of the product remains the same, it's still
a drone, and it still performs the same purpose. With modular innovation it is possible to
add additional features and functionality by connecting different components to the main
body.

Modular innovation – Where you maintain the architecture of the product, but change or modify the modules.
5.2: Innovation: Configurational innovation.

Configurational Innovation - Reconfiguration of components to

produce a new design. The ability to change critical elements,
while the basic configuration stays the same. The combination of
technological innovation and reorganization of components. For
example, moving the power button from top to side (phone)

The relationship between the core product or components and the

type of innovation used.

The configurational innovation of the iPod range.

Configurational innovation – Where change is made in both technology and organisation.

5.2: Innovation: Diffusion and Suppression.

Diffusion of innovation is a theory that seeks to explain Suppression of innovation - Is a process where a new idea or
how, why and what rate new ideas and technologies adoption of a product by the market is actively slowed.
spread through cultures. The adoption curve is a visual
This may be due to:
representation of this rate of uptake. This subject is
○ Difficulties competing with a dominant design.
covered in much more depth later in this topic.
○ Ambiguity over patent ownership.
At its basic level, diffusion is believed to have taken place ○ Competing companies actively petitioning against a new
once a product, system or service has been adopted by product it perceives as threatening.
the mainstream market. Not all products make it this far. ○ Or the natural resistance to an unfamiliar concept.
Some will not make it past the ‘chasm’. Do you know
Examples include the telephone when it had to compete with the
why?
firmly established (dominate design) of the telegraph. The electric
car vs petrol powered - Can you think of any more?

There are many

types of
Adoption curve, part of innovation - here
diffusion of innovation are just a few
theory
5.3: Strategies for innovation:

Concepts and principles: Content:

○ Design context where each strategy has been

1. Act of insight.
applied.
2. Adaptation.
3. Technology transfer.
4. Analogy.
5. Chance.
6. Technology push.
7. Market pull.
5.3: Strategies for innovation: Act of insight.

Act of insight is often referred to as the “eureka moment”, a

sudden image of a potential solution is formed in the mind,
usually after a period of thinking about a problem. Possibly
some of the most famous examples of ‘act of insight’ would be
Isaac Newton developing the theory of gravity after seeing an
apple fall from a tree. Archimedes had the first ‘eureka moment’
in the bath when he worked out how to measure and weigh
irregular shaped objects by measuring the water it displaces.

Most acts of insight come from situations that inventors find

themselves in and then the ‘ah hah moment’ happens. One
such moment came for Spencer Silver who spent years trying
to get his colleagues at 3M excited about his ‘low-tack’
pressure sensitive adhesive. One day he was at church when
he had that ‘eureka’ moment and came up with a use for his
glue. Arthur Fry another member of the church was annoyed
that his bookmarks in his bible would no stay in place. Silver
saw this as a design opportunity for his glue. He combined his
low-tack, reusable glue with small colourful pieces of paper,
and ‘Post it Notes’ were born - Do you know of any other acts
of insight?
5.3: Strategies for innovation: Adaptation & Analogy.

Adaption - A solution to a problem in one field is adapted for Analogy - An idea from one context is
solving a problem in another field. used to stimulate ideas for solving a
problem in another context. An
Adaption is taking a technology, concept or system from one analogous innovation normally is
application and applying it to new product. Adapting or derived from nature - be it the ‘wing in
changing applications of technology, designs or ideas is ground effect’ of a pelican gliding, or
commonplace in the design world, and there are many high the leaping of a dolphin. Some analogy
profile stories. The technology and idea behind the innovations come from other sources.
hovercraft was adapted to make mowing the lawn a lot Trevor Bayliss got his idea for a
easier. Now the lawnmower just floats on a cushion of air. wind-up radio from his clockwork alarm
James Dyson famously adapted the dust extraction system clock - Can you think of any others?
in a local timber mill to create his innovating vacuum cleaner
design.
5.3: Strategies for innovation: Chance.

There are many more examples of chance innovation, but these two videos show some important examples.

Chance – Where a unexpected discovery leads to new ideas or innovations.

5.3: Strategies for innovation: Technology transfer.

Technology transfer is where a technology, manufacturing process or material is transferred to another field to provide the basis
of a new invention. There are many different examples of this type of innovation, especially now with the advancements in
computing and digital applications. What ones can you think of?

The laser is a good example of a technology that was originally invented with no real purpose, but
has now found seemingly endless applications in the modern world, from cutting metal, ophthalmic
surgery, measuring and leveling, reading bar codes and even recording sound.

Laser -
Light Amplification
by Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation

Technology transfer – Where a technology, manufacturing process or material is transferred to another field to provide the basis
of a new invention.
5.3: Strategies for innovation: Technology push / market pull.

Technology Push - This is where the driving force for a new Market Pull - Designers often produce ideas for products in
design emerges from a technological development. Products response to market forces. This is also called consumer pull.
may be re-designed because of changes in materials,
Market influences include:
technologies or advancements in manufacturing methods or
processes. ○ Demand from consumers for a new product.
○ A competitor releases a new product and this impacts
Manufacturers will push their new product to market in the on your market share.
hope that customers will want to adopt the new technology
and improve market share and sales. Any advancement in Market research plays an important part in identifying the
technology can be a major selling point for companies. The opportunity for developing new products. Analysing sales
advancement in car safety is a great example of technology trends will also indicate changes in consumer preferences and
push - Air bags, impact protection, auto braking systems etc. needs.
Consumer demand or market pull for larger
screens explains the evolution of the iPhone.

Technology Push - Scientific research leads to advances in technology that lead to and underpins new ideas.
Market Pull - A new idea is needed as a result of demand from the marketplace.
5.4: Stakeholders in invention and innovation:

Concepts and principles: Content:

○ Roles of the champion and entrepreneur in the

1. The inventor, the product champion, the
innovation of products and systems.
entrepreneur.
○ Reasons why inventors often take the role of
2. The inventor as a product champion and /or
product champion and/or entrepreneur.
entrepreneur.
○ The advantages and disadvantages of
3. A multidisciplinary approach to innovation.
multidisciplinary teams.
5.4: Stakeholders in invention & innovation: Inventor, Product champion and Entrepreneur.

The Inventor - Is an individual working Product Champion - Is an influential Entrepreneur - Is an influential

outside or inside an organization who is individual, usually working within an individual who can take an invention to
committed to the invention of a novel organization, who develops enthusiasm market, often by financing the
product and often becomes isolated for a particular idea or invention and development, production and diffusion
because he or she is engrossed with “champions” it within the organization. of a product into the marketplace.
ideas that imply change and are Profile of a Product Champion: Profile of an Entrepreneur:
resisted by others. ○ Has business experience in the ○ Business acumen
Profile of a Lone inventors: domain ○ Self-control
○ Individuals with a goal of the complete ○ Can speak intelligently about the ○ Self -confidence
invention of a new and somewhat issues ○ Sense of urgency
revolutionary product. ○ Acts as a good facilitator, works and ○ Comprehensive Awareness
○ Have ideas that are completely new plays well with others. ○ Realism
and different. ○ Accepts responsibility for the product. ○ Conceptual Ability
○ May not comprehend or give sufficient ○ Defends the team’s ability to produce ○ Status Requirements
care to the marketing and sales of their the product. ○ Interpersonal Relationships
product. ○ Is willing to make hard decisions. ○ Emotional Stability
○ Are usually isolated, and have no ○ Treats the team as knowledgeable
backing towards their design. professionals.
○ Are having a harder time to push ○ Sets reasonable performance
forward their designs, especially in a expectations
market where large investments are ○ Doesn’t think she/he is an expert
required for success. about the market.
○ Their ideas, because of how different ○ Performs ongoing market analysis
they are are often resisted.
5.4: Stakeholders in invention & innovation: Inventor, Product champion and Entrepreneur.

Steve Jobs James Dyson Sergey Brin Henry Ford Elon Musk

On occasion, the inventor is also the product champion and/or entrepreneur.

This requires specific skill sets and the actions to fulfill these roles and not
every designer/inventor will have these skills, or the desire or drive to pursue
these multidisciplinary roles.
Multidisciplinary approach to innovation needs:
○ Effective design draws from multiple areas of expertise, and this can be utilised
at different stages of product development.
○ Most products are now extremely complex and rely on expertise from various
disciplines.
○ It would be unlikely that a lone inventor would have the expertise in all the
disciplines.
○ Most modern day designs are developed in multidisciplinary teams

James Dyson
5.4: Stakeholders in invention & innovation: Multidisciplinary approach to innovation..

Advantages Disadvantages

○ Wide range of knowledge that others may not have ○ May not want to share ideas for fear of losing ownership.
considered.
○ Individual may not be used to working in teams.
○ Wide range of expertise and/or backgrounds that foster
cross-fertilization of ideas. ○ Different working styles and speed.

○ Wide range of expertise and/or backgrounds meaning ○ Chance of miscommunication.

that people look at ideas through a different set of lens.
5.5: Product life cycle:

Concepts and principles: Content:

○ Examples of products at different stages of the

1. Key stages of the product life cycle: launch,
product life cycle including those new to the
growth, maturity, decline.
market and classic designs.
2. Obsolescence: planned, style (fashion),
○ Length of the product life cycle considering the
functional, technological.
effect of technical development and consumer
3. Predictability of the product life cycle
trends.
4. Product versioning/generations.
○ Advantages and disadvantages for a company
of introducing new versions and generations of a
product.
 5.5: Product life cycle: Key stages of the product life cycle.
Innovation and the continuous development of new and
improved products are key to the design process. The Product
Life Cycle is a business term that attempts to list the different
stages in the lifespan of a product.
A Product Life Cycle (PLC) will go through 4 separate stages
and they are explained below
Product life cycle - Brief introduction.

Launch or Introduction phase - With any new product you must introduce it to the marketplace.
It is necessary to launch the product with the right image at the right price. To introduce a new
product to the marketplace can require significant investment, it is also important you have a
good infrastructure in place as poor distribution at the beginning can lead to a disaster for a new Product life cycle - Extended explanation.
product.

Growth phase - Once you have survived the introduction phase, your product will have to grow.
It is at this stage that it is hoped that sales and profits will grow. When a customer base is
established this can be a good time to introduce complementary products.

Maturity phase - The profit revenue from the product is falling and price reductions may be
necessary to maintain competitiveness. It is likely that your customer base is as wide as it will go.

Decline phase - Falling sales means customers are tiring of your product. The market is
changing, you either need to relaunch, modify, or introduce a new product. It’s time to move on,
or do you need to find a new market?
5.5: Product life cycle: Obsolescence.

Obsolescence is where a product or trend There are a number of different types of ‘obsolescence’, but these are the 4 main
becomes obsolete or outdated and no longer types:
used or needed. Planned Obsolescence – A product becomes outdated as a conscious act either
to ensure a continuing market or to ensure that safety factors and new
Reason why for many products the product
technologies can be incorporated into later versions of the product. Ever
cycle has shortened:
wondered why your mobile phone or laptop never seems to last more than 4 or 5
○ Include new safety features.
years?
○ Include the latest technology. Apple deliberately slowed down its older model phones. They say it was to
○ Trends in fashion or style protect them - Do you believe them?
fluctuate.
○ Ensure a continuing market.
Style (fashion) Obsolescence – Fashions and trends change over time, which
can result in a product no longer being desirable. However, as evidenced by the
concept of retro styling and the cyclic nature of fashion, products can become
desirable again.
Functional Obsolescence – Over time, products wear out and break down. If
parts are no longer available, the product can no longer work in the way it
originally did. Also, if a service vital to its functioning is no longer available, it can
become obsolete.
Technological Obsolescence – When a new technology supersedes an existing
technology, the existing technology quickly falls out of use and is no longer
incorporated into new products. Consumers instead opt for the newer, more
efficient technology in their products.
5.5: Product life cycle: Predictability, Product versioning / generations.
Product Versioning: Samsung.
Predictability - The rate of technological advancement has given rise to some
incredibly short product life cycles, especially in digital products. On average you can
expect a highly innovative product you purchased on release day to be replaced with
something newer and better within a year. There are now a number of companies and
software that will track a products life cycle and analyse the data for you. This does give
companies an element of predictability and allow them to understand when a new
product is needed.
The A range.
Unpredictability - While a product’s lifespan may be limited, it is very hard for a
manufacturer to accurately predict how long it is likely to be, especially in the
development stage of a new product. However, with data analysis, this is improving.
While most manufacturers are very good at making decisions based on the information
they have, customer demand can be really unpredictable, which means they don’t
always get it right - what can cause this unpredictability?

The J range.
Product versioning - Is a business practice in which a company produces different
models of the same product, and then charges different prices for each model.
Versioning a product gives the consumer the option of purchasing a higher valued model
for more money, or a lower valued model for less. A company can maintain a pioneering
strategy and consistent revenue flow by introducing new versions or generations of a
product to a market. Apple uses this strategy effectively, creating multiple versions and
generations of their iPod®, iPhone® and iPad® products. The S range.
5.5: Product life cycle: Advantages and Disadvantages of product versions or generations.

Advantages and disadvantages for a company of introducing new

versions and generations of a product

○ Consumers can choose the version thats suits them.

○ Improved consumer choice.

○ Some groups can benefit from reduced costs.

○ Increased market spread for the company.

○ Spreads out demand and reduces pressure on individual products.

○ Maximise profits for the company hopefully through increased sales.

Product life cycle: Explanation.

5.6: Roger’s characteristics on innovation and consumers.

Concepts and principles: Content:

○ Examples of product innovations for each of

1. Diffusion and innovation.
Rogers’ characteristics.
2. The impact of Rogers’ characteristics on
○ The impact of Rogers’ characteristics on
consumer adoption of an innovation.
consumer adoption of an innovation can be
3. Social roots of consumerism.
considered in terms of relative advantage,
4. The influence of social media on the diffusion of
compatibility, complexity, observability,
innovation.
trialability.
5. The influence of trends and the media on
○ The social roots of consumerism include
consumer choice.
lifestyle, values and identity.
6. Categories of consumers in relation to
○ Issues for companies in the global marketplace
technology adoption.
when attempting to satisfy consumer needs in
relation to lifestyle, values and identity.
○ Categories of consumers include innovations,
early adopters, early majority, late majority,
laggards.
5.6: Roger’s characteristics: Diffusion and innovation.

Diffusion of innovations is a theory that seeks to explain how,

why, and at what rate new ideas and technologies are spread
through cultures. Everett Rogers, a professor of Communication
Studies popularised this theory in his book, Diffusion of
Innovations in 1962.
Rogers argues that diffusion is the process by which an
innovation is communicated through certain channels over time
among the participants in a social system - His process relies
heavily on human skills and techniques. This theory was also
designed before the concept of ‘social media’, but it has only
helped reinforce his idea. A new innovation must be widely
adopted in order to self sustain.
Rogers formulated four research elements of diffusion:
1. Innovation - The new object or product.
2. Communication channels - They way the message
moves from one person to another.
3. Time - The rate of adoption is the relative speed with
which an innovation is adopted by members of social
system.
4. Social systems - A set of interrelated units that are
Explanation of Diffusion of Innovation. engaged in joint problem solving to accomplish a common
goal.
5.6: Roger’s characteristics: Impact on consumer adoption and innovation.

While we will look at the different groups that adopt innovations in

more detail later. In Rogers theory he has developed five
characteristics that impact on consumer adoption of
innovations. The rate at which they adopt is explained in the
video, and this is known as the ‘S’ curve of adoption.
The 5 characteristics of why someone would adopt an innovation
are:
○ Relative advantage - How improved an innovation is
over the previous generation.
○ Compatibility - The level of compatibility an innovation
has to being assimilated into an individual's life.
○ Complexity - If the innovation is perceived as to
complicated or difficult to use, an individual is unlikely to
adopt it.
○ Observability - The extent to which an innovation is
visible to others. An innovation that is more visible
The S Curve of adoption - The rate at which innovations are taken up.
(advertised, promoted etc) the more likely it is to be talked
about and discussed in social groups, therefore leading to
more greater adoption.
○ Trialability - How easily an innovation is to be explored,
tried or tested, the individual is more likely to adopt it.
5.6: Roger’s characteristics: Characteristics on consumer adoption of an innovation.

While the ‘S’ curve of adoption details the rate at which innovations are
adopted, Rogers also looked at the different groups that adopt innovations.
The five categories of consumers in relation to their technical adoption are:
○ Innovators - The first individuals to adopt an innovation. They are
willing to take a risk - 2.5% of the population group.
○ Early adopters - The second group to take up an innovation. Less
likely to take risks than innovators, but still at the forefront of
innovation - 13.5% of the population group.
○ Early majority - tends to take more time to consider adopting
innovations and inclined to draw from feedback from early adopters
before taking the risk of a new purchase - 34% of the population
group.
○ Late majority - Adopts the innovation after it has been established
in the marketplace and is seldom willing to take risks with new
innovations - 34%.
○ Laggards - The last to adopt an innovation. They tend to prefer
traditions and are unwilling to take risks - 16%.

Which group are you?

Can you think of someone that would fit into each group?
5.6: Roger’s characteristics: Social roots consumerism and the influence of social media.

Social roots of consumerism - Consumerism is a social and Influence of social media on diffusion of innovation -
economic order and ideology that encourages the acquisition Consumers can have a huge influence on innovation. With the
of goods and services in ever greater amounts. Consumerism advent of social media and the raise of social ‘influencers’
is sometimes used in reference to the anthropological and consumers are more an more exposed to different trends,
biological phenomenon of people purchasing goods and styles and innovations. Social media can also have a negative
consuming materials in excess of their basic needs. impact on innovation through pressure groups and boycotts of
products or ideas.
Consumerism really began with the industrial revolution. It
created unprecedented economic growth, and for the first time Crowdfunding has possibly had the larger impact on
in history products were available in outstanding quantities. innovation and development of new ideas. Designers and
Add in the increased wealth and the concept of leisure time all developers are now able to access funding for their designs,
added to the birth of consumerism. Consumerism can drive as well as affordably and easily advertise their products via
demand, that can be a good or a bad thing, but people's various online and social media applications.
appetites for new and exciting things seems endless. There is
always someone searching for the next innovation.

Consumerism - Good or Bad, you decide.

5.6: Roger’s characteristics: Influence of trends and the media on consumer choice.

Consumers can easily be influenced by trends, fads and

fashion and this usually comes down to different human
behaviours. Companies and brands need to understand
these behaviours in order to market, communicate and
channel their products or services to the right market.

Social media has had a large effect on how this is now

done. Companies are now able to target specific groups all
over the world. This ‘targeted’ approach helps marketing
companies reduce costs by eliminating wasted advertising,
and increase sales by communicating with the correct
target audience for their products or services.

Companies also need to carefully consider which media is

best to promote their products or services. The
mainstream media outlets of TV, film and print media still The meteoric rise of social media and its influence on innovation
reach enormous amounts of people. Social media has made it much easier for new products, designs and innovations
platforms and online influencers, while they have their to “cross the chasm”. This is achieved by communicating
place in modern marketing, they are a new addition to the effectively with your target market and giving as many people as
mix and not readily used by all consumer groups. possible the opportunity to access your product. The more people
that know about your innovation the great chance you have of
making it to the mainstream market.
5.7: Innovation, design and market specifications.

Concepts and principles: Content:

○ How market sectors and segments can be used

1. Target markets.
to establish target markets.
2. Target audiences.
○ How a target audience is used to establish the
3. Market analysis.
characteristics of users.
4. User need.
○ Design contexts for different target markets and
5. Competition.
audiences.
6. Research methods.
7. Design specifications.
5.7: Innovation, design and market specifications: Target markets & target audiences.

A Target Market refers to the sectors and segments within a population

group. Where as a Target Audience relates to characteristics of the users
within each sector or segment.
Target Market: There are four main areas that define target markets. We
will cover this is a bit more detail on the next slide, but the categories are:
○ Geographical.
○ Demographic or Socioeconomic.
○ Psychographic.
○ Behavioural.
When establishing a Target Market you should consider:
Who is most likely to buy this product given its benefits? How can the
organization tap into the buying power of these consumers? Where is the
target market most likely to find out about the product? Answering these
questions helps you to position your product in the correct marketing and
distribution channels.
Target Audience: Is a specific group of people within the larger target
market at which a product or marketing message is aimed at.
For example, if a company is hoping to sell a new diet programme for men
with heart disease issues (Target Market), the marketing campaign or
message could be aimed at the person (Target Audience) how takes care
of the eating plan for that household.
5.7: Innovation, design and market specifications: Market segments.

Market Segments

Geographical Demographic Psychographic Behavioural

Continent Age Lifestyle Occasions

Country Gender Social class Degree of loyalty

Country region Family size Interest Benefits sought

City Occupation Activity Usage

Density Income Opinion Buyer readiness

Climate Education Personal values User status

Population Religion Attitudes

City area Race

Street Nationality
5.7: Innovation, design and market specifications: Market analysis and User need.

Market Analysis: User Need:

An appraisal of economic viability of the proposed design from A marketing specification should identify the essential
a market perspective, taking into account fixed and variable requirements that the product must satisfy in relation to market
costs and pricing, is important. It is typically a summary about and user need.
potential users and the market.
Economic viability - Economic viability is informed by
financial analysis but takes a broader approach to costs and
benefits than just financial considerations. A project is
assessed as economically viable if the project benefits exceed
the project costs.

Fixed costs - Are dependent on the level of goods or services

produced by a business. They tend to be time-related, such as
salaries or rent and are often referred to as ‘overheads’.

Variable costs - In contrast to fixed costs, variable costs are

volume related - raw materials, components etc.
5.7: Innovation, design and market specifications: Competition and research methods.

Competition: Research methods:

A thorough analysis of competing designs is required to Literature search - Research of established research
establish the market need. performed by others.
User trial - A user trial is carried out by giving a product to a
Every product you take to market, even ones that are new person, or group of people, then asking them to give feedback
inventions or improvements on old products, face competition. after they have used the product. This could last from a few
This is because customers buy products for many different hours to a few days and often involves the use of a
reasons. Some are interested in the innovation of new questionnaire.
products, others care more about price point and clever User research - User research focuses on understanding user
marketing schemes. Your competition will capitalize on these behaviors, needs, and motivations through observation
buyer preferences and seek to edge out your product from the techniques, task analysis, and other feedback methods
market. Identifying the competition in your marketing
specification helps the organization to clarify how it can edge Expert appraisal - This is a process in which an expert,
out and respond to the competition. chosen on the basis of his or her knowledge of the area or
field in which your product or service is based, and gives
feedback on its operation, suitability and identifies any design
issues.
Performance test - Product Testing, also called consumer
testing or comparative testing, is a process of measuring the
properties or performance of products. Product testing is any
process by means of which a researcher measures a product's
performance, safety, quality, and compliance with established
standards.
5.7: Innovation, design and market specifications: Design specifications.

A design specification relates to the requirements of a product and details aspects of:

○ Aesthetic requirements.
○ Cost constraints.
○ Customer requirements.
○ Environmental requirements.
○ Size constraints.
○ Safety considerations.
○ Performance requirements and constraints.
○ Materials requirements.
○ Manufacturing requirements.
○ Any others that pertain to the design context.

All of the requirements, constraints and considerations must be specific, feasible and measurable.

The design specification must be developed from the design brief and research and pay particular attention to
the users needs and requirements, while conforming to any legal requirements and set industrial standards for
the product being made.