Reviewer
Topic: The Development of the Periodic Table
Sub-topics: Law of Triads, Law of Octaves, Periodic Law and Revised/Modern Periodic Law
What Are Triads in Chemistry?
A triad is a group of three elements that have similar chemical properties.
Who is a scientist arranged elements in groups of three called triads based on similar
chemical properties?
The idea of triads was introduced by a German scientist named Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner in
the early 1800s. His work was one of the first steps toward organizing the elements in a systematic
way — something that later led to the modern periodic table.
Döbereiner noticed that:
1. Certain elements could be grouped into sets of three (triads) based on the periodic table.
2. These elements had similar properties (for example, they reacted in similar ways or had
similar appearances).
3. The atomic mass of the middle element was roughly the average of the first and third
elements.
Examples of Triads
1. Alkali Metal Triad
Lithium (Li)
Sodium (Na)
Potassium (K)
These are all soft metals that react with water to form alkaline solutions. Average atomic mass of Li
and K ≈ atomic mass of Na.
2. Halogen Triad
Chlorine (Cl)
Bromine (Br)
Iodine (I)
All are nonmetals and form salts when they react with metals. Bromine’s atomic mass is close to the
average of chlorine and iodine.
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Who Was John Newlands? John Alexander Reina Newlands; Born: 1837 (England); Died: 1898; He
was a British chemist.
He was one of the first scientists to find a pattern in the elements before the modern periodic
table was created.
His Basic Concept: Law of Octaves
Newlands arranged the known chemical elements in increasing order of their atomic
masses.
While doing this, he noticed a pattern:
Every eighth element had similar properties to the first one.
For example:
Lithium (3) and Sodium (11) showed similar properties.
Beryllium (4) and Magnesium (12) also showed similar properties.
This repeating pattern reminded him of musical notes, where every eighth note is similar.
So he called it: “Law of Octaves”
“When elements are arranged in increasing order of their atomic masses, the properties
of every eighth element are similar to the first.”
Contribution to Chemistry
1. Early attempt to classify elements:
He was one of the first to group elements based on their properties.
2. Helped in organizing the periodic table:
Even though his Law of Octaves didn’t work for all elements (especially heavier ones), it
inspired other scientists like Dmitri Mendeleev to develop a better classification.
3. Recognized repeating patterns:
He showed that element properties repeat at regular intervals, which is an important idea in
the modern periodic law.
Limitations of His Work
The Law of Octaves worked only for the first 20 elements.
It did not fit newly discovered elements.
Some scientists at the time didn’t take his work seriously.
But today, his contribution is recognized as a big step toward the periodic table we use now.
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Who Was Dmitri Mendeleev? Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev; Born: 1834 (Russia); Died: 1907
He was a Russian chemist.
He is known as the “Father of the Periodic Table.”
What Did Mendeleev Do?
In 1869, Mendeleev arranged the known chemical elements in a table according to their atomic
masses and similar properties.
He noticed that when elements are arranged this way, their properties repeat at regular intervals
(periodically).
This arrangement became known as Mendeleev’s Periodic Table.
Dmitri Mendeleev arranged elements in order of increasing atomic mass and grouped them
according to similar chemical properties.
What made his table more useful than earlier ones was that he left gaps in the table for
elements that had not yet been discovered.
He also accurately predicted the properties of these missing elements (such as eka-
silicon → later discovered as germanium).
This predictive power gave strong support to his periodic table.
Dmitri Mendeleev was a Russian chemist who arranged elements in a periodic table based on their
atomic masses and properties.
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Henry Moseley was an English physicist born in 1887 who made a significant contribution to
chemistry and atomic physics. His key contribution was in establishing the concept of atomic
number as the fundamental property that defines an element.
Henry Moseley’s work showed that the properties of elements are better explained when they are
arranged by their atomic number (the number of protons), rather than by atomic mass. This discovery
led to the modern periodic law and the modern periodic table arrangement.
Moseley's Contribution:
Before Moseley, elements in the periodic table were arranged primarily by atomic mass.
Moseley used X-ray spectroscopy to study the frequencies of X-rays emitted by different
elements.
He discovered a clear relationship between the X-ray frequencies and the atomic number (the
number of protons in the nucleus).
This showed that atomic number, not atomic mass, is the true basis for the organization of
the periodic table.
His work corrected inconsistencies in the periodic table and allowed for the prediction of
undiscovered elements.
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Noble gases are known for their stability due to full outer electron shells and are generally
unreactive or inert. They do not typically form strong bonds with alkali metals.
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Periods And Groups in The Periodic Table
Periods (Horizontal Rows)
The periodic table is arranged in rows called periods.
There are 7 periods in the periodic table.
Each period tells you how many energy levels or shells of electrons an atom of an element
has.
As you move from left to right in a period, the number of protons and electrons increases
by one in each step.
Elements in the same period do not have similar properties because their outer electron
arrangements are different.
Groups (Vertical Columns)
The periodic table is also arranged in columns called groups.
There are 18 groups in total.
Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their outermost shell
(also called valence electrons).
Because of this, elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.
For example, all elements in Group 1 (alkali metals) are very reactive and have 1 electron in
their outer shell.
Periods = rows = same number of electron shells
Groups = columns = same number of outer electrons → similar properties
Why do elements in the same group (vertical column) of the Periodic Table have similar
chemical properties?
Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their outermost shell
(valence electrons), which is why they show similar chemical properties.
If an element is found in Period 3 and Group 17, what can you predict about its atomic
structure?
Being in Period 3 means the element has 3 electron shells.
Being in Group 17 means the element has 7 valence electrons in its outermost shell.
So, the element has 3 shells and 7 valence electrons.
The Periodic Table is organized into 18 groups (columns) because elements in the same
group have similar chemical properties, which is mainly due to having the same number of
valence electrons. This similarity in valence electrons influences how they react chemically. The
other options are incorrect because:
A: Groups are not arranged randomly.
B: Groups are not organized solely by atomic size.
C: Elements in the same group do not have the same number of neutrons.
The periodic table is organized by atomic number (number of protons) and electron
configuration, not by atomic mass.
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Properties of Electrons
The farther the outer electron is, the weaker the attraction to the nucleus, making it easier
to lose during a reaction with water.
Alkali metals become more reactive as you move down the group.
Elements in the same period (horizontal row) of the periodic table have the same number of
electron shells (energy levels).
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What is Electron Configuration?
Electron configuration is the way electrons are arranged or distributed in an atom’s energy
levels (also called shells).
Atoms have a nucleus in the center (with protons and neutrons) and electrons that move
around it.
Electrons are arranged in shells (also called energy levels):
o 1st shell (closest to nucleus)
o 2nd shell
o 3rd shell
o and so on…
How Many Electrons Can Each Shell Hold?
1st shell → up to 2 electrons
2nd shell → up to 8 electrons
3rd shell → up to 18 electrons (but for simple atoms, we usually fill 8 first)
Rule: Electrons fill the lowest energy level first before moving to the next shell.
Example: Electron Configuration of Some Elements
Atomic No. of Electron Shell
Element
Number Electrons Configuration Diagram
Hydrogen
1 1 1 K¹
(H)
Helium (He) 2 2 2 K²
Lithium (Li) 3 3 2,1 K² L¹
Oxygen (O) 8 8 2,6 K² L⁶
Sodium (Na) 11 11 2,8,1 K² L⁸ M¹
Tip: The numbers (e.g., 2,8,1) tell us how many electrons are in each shell.
Why is Electron Configuration Important?
It helps us predict how elements will react with other elements.
It shows us the group and period in the periodic table.
It explains why some elements are more reactive than others.
The outermost electrons (valence electrons) determine an element’s chemical properties.