Carbon is a chemical element with the symbol C and atomic number 6.

The name of
Carbon is derived from the Latin word Carbo meaning ‘coal’. Carbon is a non-metallic
and tetravalent atom, i.e. it forms four covalent bonds with other atoms. Carbon
accounts for only about 0.025% of the Earth’s crust. Carbon is the 15th most abundant
element in the Earth’s crust and, by mass, the fourth most abundant element in the
universe.

What is Carbon?
Carbon is one of the basic and most important elements found on Earth and in the
universe. It is found in the group – 14 of the periodic table. The symbol of the carbon
atom is C the atomic number of carbon is 6 and its atomic mass is 12. The carbon atom
is represented as, 6C12. The existence of the carbon atom is first proposed by Lavoisier
in 1789 A.D.

Properties of Carbon
Properties of the carbon atom are added below in the article.
 Atomic Number
 Mass Number
 Structure
Atomic Number of Carbon
The atomic number of carbon atom is 6, as it has six protons in its nucleus.
Mass Number or Atomic Mass of Carbon
Mass number or the atomic number of any element is the sum of number of protons
and neutrons in an atom and the atomic mass of carbon is 12.

Structure of Carbon
Carbon atom has six electrons, six protons, and six neutrons. In the carbon atom 6
protons and 6 neutrons reside inside the nucleus and 6 electrons revolve around the
nucleus of carbon atom. The structure of carbon atom is added below,

Apart from this chemical properties and the physical properties of the carbon atom
are added below.
Chemical Properties of Carbon
The chemical properties of the carbon is added in the table below,
 Chemical Symbol C

Group 14

Period 2

Block p

Atomic Number 6

Mass Number 12

Melting Point 3825°C (Sublimation Point)

Boling Point 3825°C (Sublimation Point)

Physical State Solid

Physical Properties of Carbon

Various physical properties of the carbon atom are,
 Carbon generates four electrons in order to form a covalent bond.
 It exists in a variety of allotropes and other forms. Diamond and graphite are two
examples of materials with distinct properties.
 Under normal conditions, carbon is extremely inert.
 This chemical element is denoted by the symbol C.
 It has the atomic number 6 because it has 6 protons in its nucleus.
 Carbon is non-metallic as well as tetravalent.
 It comes in a variety of shapes.
 The chemical element can form bonds with other elements.
As a result, a large number of compounds are formed.
Allotropes of Carbon
Carbon has three Allotropes form, i.e. carbon exist in three forms naturally and the
three allotropic form of carbon are,
 Diamond
 Graphite
 Fullerene
Uses of Carbon
Carbon is one of the most useful atom in the periodic table and is used in natural,
industrial, chemical and other process. Various uses of carbon are,
  Carbon in its Diamond form is used as Jewellery and it also has some industrial
applications.
 Carbon is used as a black pigment to decorate the rims of automobiles or used as
printer ink.
 Graphite is another type of carbon that has been used in high-temperature
crucibles, arc lamp electrodes, dry cells, and pencil tips.
 Another amorphous state of carbon is vegetal carbon, which is used as a
bleaching agent and a gas absorbent.
 They use carbon dioxide and a fire extinguisher to carbonate drinks.
 Carbon in the solid form is known as dry ice.
 Carbon monoxide is also useful for the reduction in a variety of metallurgical
processes.
 Carbon disulphide and carbon tetrachloride are two notable inclusions in
industrial solvents.
Occurrence of Carbon
Carbon is one of the most abundant mineral in the Universe and it exist generally in two
states that are,
 Free State
 Combined State
Carbon has three naturally occurring isotopes and the isotopes of the carbon are, C-12,
C-13, and C-14. C-12 is the most abundant isotope of the carbon and C-14 is
the radioactive isotope of carbon and it is widely used for carbon dating.

Free State
After hydrogen, helium, and oxygen, carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical
element in the observable universe by mass. Carbon is abundant in the sun, stars,
comets, and most planets’ atmospheres. Some meteorites contain microscopic
diamonds that formed when the solar system was still in the form of a protoplanetary
disc.
The great majority of carbonate rock masses contain carbon (limestone, dolomite,
marble and so on). Coal is the most abundant commercial source of mineral carbon and
is very rich in carbon (anthracite contains 92–98 %). The majority of diamond deposits
are found in Africa. Diamonds are now being recovered from the seafloor off the coast
of the Cape of Good Hope. Diamonds are found naturally, but approximately 30% of all
industrial diamonds used in the United States are now manufactured.

Combined State
Carbon can be found in the Earth’s atmosphere and is dissolved in all bodies of water.
Carbon can also be found in hydrocarbons (such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas).
Coal reserves are estimated to be around 900 gigatons. Carbon can also be found in
methane hydrates found in the Polar Regions and beneath the seas.
It can also be found in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons as natural gas
and petroleum, cellulose in wood, and limestone in combined states. Carbon
compounds such as calcium and magnesium carbonates aid in the formation of
common minerals such as dolomite, magnesite, limestone, and marble. Furthermore,
the shells of clams, oysters, and corals are calcium carbonate.
Why Graphite Conducts Electricity, but Diamond does not?
In the case of diamond, each carbon atom in a single crystal is covalently bound to four
other carbon atoms, forming the four corners of a regular tetrahedron. There are no
free electrons available due to the four covalent bonds with each carbon atom.
Diamond is a poor conductor of electricity due to the lack of free electrons within its
crystalline structure.
Every carbon atom in a single crystal of graphite is covalently bonded to three other
carbon atoms. Due to the fact that each carbon atom has four valence electrons, one
valence electron is left free for each carbon atom. By applying electric potential, these
free electrons can be easily made to flow within the crystalline structure of graphite. As
a result, graphite is an excellent electrical conductor.

Why does Carbon Always Form Covalent Bonds?

As carbon plays such an important role in living organisms’ chemistry, all are carbon-
based. This suggests that carbon atoms, bound to other carbon atoms or other
elements, are the basic building blocks of many, if not all, of the compounds, found only
in living beings. Other atoms play vital roles in biological molecules, but carbon is
unquestionably the “foundation” element for living organisms. Carbon atoms’ bonding
characteristics are responsible for their significant importance.
Carbon
Carbon with atomic number 6, has the configuration (2,4) with four valence electrons in
the valence shell. To attain stability, carbon needs to have the noble gas configuration of
inert or noble gases which are nearest to it.
The carbon atom is one of the few elements that have the ability to establish large
networks of covalent connections with both other elements and itself. Carbon is neither
an electropositive nor an electronegative element due to its position in the second
horizontal row of the periodic table; as a result, it is more likely to share electrons than
to gain or lose them.
Because it can mix with itself and many other elements, carbon is a relatively common
“ingredient” of matter. It may produce a wide range of compounds, with sizes ranging
from a few atoms to thousands of atoms. Carbon is the only element that can produce
so many distinct compounds, and there are millions of them known.

Valence Electrons in Carbon

Carbon is a non-metal in the periodic table’s group 14. Carbon, like the other elements
in Group 14, has four valence electrons. The electrons in an atom’s outer energy level
that are engaged in chemical bonds are known as valence electrons. The electron dot
diagram in the Figure below depicts the valence electrons of carbon.
 Carbon with four valence electrons
To fill its outer energy level, carbon requires four more valence electrons, for a total of
eight valence electrons. The most stable arrangement of electrons is a whole outer
energy level. Four covalent bonds can be formed by Carbon. Chemical bonds between
non-metals are known as covalent bonds. Two atoms share a pair of electrons in a
covalent bond. Carbon shares four pairs of electrons by establishing four covalent
bonds, thus filling its outer energy level and ensuring stability.
How Carbon Forms Covalent Bonds?
Gas is said to be a noble gas in nature if it has 8 electrons in its valence shell or two
electrons in its valence shell in the case of Helium. Noble gases are also called inert
gases or stable gases because they are stable in nature. Every atom tries to attain a
noble gas configuration through bonding.
Noble Gases nearest to Carbon are Helium (He = 2) and Neon (Ne = 2, 8) are the inert
gases nearest to carbon. Now, carbon has two choices to attain this configuration either
by gaining four electrons (attaining Ne configuration) or by losing 4 electrons (attaining
He configuration). But both of the choices with the Ionic Bond Formation are not
feasible because:
 Formation of Carbon Anion by the gain of four electrons: By gaining four
electrons, carbon becomes a C-4 Anion.

Carbon Anion
Anions are negatively charged ions formed when the atom has more electrons than
protons. Here, Carbon has 6 protons and 10 electrons.
Although carbon attains Ne configuration it becomes difficult for the nucleus to hold ten
electrons with six protons. So, it’s unstable and this bonding doesn’t take place.
 Formation of Carbon Cation by the loss of four electrons: By losing four
electrons, carbon becomes C+4 Cation.

Carbon Cation
Cations are positively charged ions formed when the atom has more protons than
electrons. Here, Carbon has 6 protons and 2 electrons
Although carbon attains He configuration it becomes difficult for the nucleus to hold
two electrons with six protons. So, it’s unstable and this bonding doesn’t take place.
These two reasons don’t support the formation of Ionic Bonds in the case of Carbon. So,
to its rescue Carbon completes its octet by sharing electrons and completing its octet.
Such type of bonding where element completes their octet by sharing electrons is
known to be Covalent in nature.
Thus, Carbon always forms Covalent Bonds.
Covalent bonds can be formed between carbon atoms or between carbon atoms and
the atoms of other elements. Carbon and hydrogen frequently form bonds.
Hydrocarbons are compounds that simply contain carbon and hydrogen. A hydrocarbon
is something like methane (CH4), which is modelled in the diagram below. One carbon
atom forms covalent connections with four hydrogen atoms in methane. All of the
shared valence electrons are depicted on the left in the diagram below. Each pair of
shared electrons is represented by a dash (–) in the figure on the right in the Figure
below, which is called a structural formula.

Why is Carbon considered as Tetravalent?

The main reason for calling Carbon tetravalent is because carbon has 4 valence
electrons in its valence shell. This tetravalent nature of having 4 valence electrons in the
outer shell of Carbon leads to carbon to share electrons and form covalent bonds to
attain the nearest noble gas configuration of Neon. Four covalent bonds are formed by
Carbon for attaining stability or nearest noble gas configuration. The covalent bond
nature of Carbon is thus because of the tetravalent nature of Carbon.
The bond formation which therefore takes place in Carbon is Covalent in Nature.
Covalent bonding is the bond formation that takes place when there is no give or takes
of electrons to form noble gas configuration and electrons are shared between two
atoms to provide each other stability.
An example of Covalent Bond Formation observed in CO2 between atoms of Carbon and
Oxygen is as below:

Covalent Bond Formation

Allotropes of Carbon
Allotropes of Carbon are the forms of carbon that have different structures and
properties. Allotrope is the phenomenon in which an element can exist in more than
one physical state. The well-known allotropes of carbon are Diamond and Graphite.
Various other allotropes of carbon are explained in the article below.
Allotropes of Carbon Definition
Allotropes of carbon are different forms of the element carbon, each with unique
molecular structures and properties.
Carbon is one of the most important elements of the periodic table and is represented
by the letter ‘C’. There are various physical forms in which carbon can exist. It has
variable oxidation state and coordination number.
Types of Allotropes of Carbon
Allotropes of Carbon are of various types that are categorized into two different
categories that are,
 Crystalline Allotropes
 Amorphous Allotropes
Crystalline Allotropes of Carbon
There are various crystalline allotropes of carbon, some of which are as follows:
 Diamond
 Graphite
 Fullerene
Diamond
Diamond is a kind of carbon that has its atoms organised in a cubic crystal structure.
Another solid form of carbon known as graphite is the chemically stable form of carbon
at normal temperature and pressure, although it nearly never transforms to it.
It has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any natural substance,
characteristics that make it ideal for cutting and polishing equipment in the industry.
Structure of Diamond
The structure of the diamond is added in the image added below,

Structure of Diamond.
Properties of Diamond
Various properties of the diamond are,
 Diamond is one of the hardest known element in the world.
 Diamond has a very high melting point.
 The density of the diamond is very high.
 The refractive index of the diamond is one of the highest.
 Diamond is insoluble in all solvents.
Graphite
Carbon atoms in Graphite is in a state of sp2 hybridization, which means it is covalently
linked to three other carbon atoms in the same plane. Planar hexagonal rings are
produced as a result. Layers are formed by hexagonal rings. Van der Waal’s force holds
the layers together, while 142 pm separates them. Because these layers are able to slide
over one another, graphite is soft and lubricious.
Properties of Graphite
Various properties of the graphite are,
 It has a metallic sheen and is dark grey in colour.
 Touching it feels extremely soft and oily.
 The fourth valence electron of each Carbon is free to travel since only three
electrons of each Carbon are required to make hexagonal rings in graphite. As a
result, graphite is a strong heat and electrical conductor.
 Dilute acids, alkalis, and chlorine do not dissolve the graphite

Fullerene
Fullerene, is one of the crystalline allotropic form of the carbon and its composition is
C2n where n ≥ 30. These allotrope of the carbon is not found in nature but is prepared
in laboratory by evaporating Graphite with a laser. Fullerene can be easily dissolved in
organic solvents.
The Fullerene C60 is called ‘Buckminster Fullerene’. All the atoms in Buckminster
fullerene are sp2 hybridized. Buckminster Fullerene is called Buckey Ball because its
shape represents a soccer ball. They have remarkable properties, such as exceptional
strength and electrical conductivity, and they find applications in nanotechnology,
material science, and even medicine due to their potential in drug delivery systems.
In honour of American architect Robert Buckminster Fuller, the C 60 fullerenes are
sometimes known as Buckminster Fullerene or simply Fullerene.

Structure of C60 Fullerenes

Buckminister Fullerene is an allotrope of carbon which is in the shape of a soccer ball.
There are 20 hexagonal and 12 pentagonal rings of carbon atoms in single molecule and
the structure of the Fullerene is added in the image below,

Structure of fullerene
Amorphous Allotropes of Carbon
Various alloropes of the carbon also exist in amorphous form and some them are,
Coal
Coal is naturally formed in nature by carbonization of wood. If wood is subjected to high
pressure and high temperature in the absence of the air then it forms coal.
Uses of Coal :
 Coal is used as fuel.
 Coal is used in manufacturing of Steel, Water Gas and Producer Gas.
 Some type of coal is used for producing Graphite.
Carbon Black
When vegetable oil (rich in carbon) is burnt in the limited supply of oxygen (air) a black
reidue is formed this is called carbon black or lamp black. It is used in making Ink,
Carbon Paper, Varnishes and Paints. Kajal a cosmetic product is formed using carbon
black.
Charcoal
When wood is heated in very limited supply of the air wood charcoal is formed.
Simillarly when bones of animal is heated in limited supply of air animal charcoal is
formed.
Uses of Diamond
Diamond has various uses that are,
 Diamonds are used to cut glass cutters, marble saws, and rock drilling tools,
among other things.
 Because of their exceptional brightness, they are utilised in jewellery.
 Sharp-edged diamonds are used by eye surgeons to remove cataracts from the
eyes with remarkable precision.
 Diamond dies are used to draw very thin metal wires such as tungsten.
Uses of Graphite
Various uses of the Graphite are,
 It is used to make carbon arcs and electrodes.
 It is a lubricant for equipment that operate at high temperatures.
 Lead pencils are made with this material. Graphite powder is combined with clay
and formed into sticks. Pencils are made from these sticks.
 It is employed in atomic reactors as a moderator.
 It is utilized in steel production as a reducing agent.
 It is a component of high-strength composites.
 It is utilised to make Crucibles, which can resist extremely high temperatures.
Uses of Charcoal
Charcoal is used for various purposes that are,
 Charcoal is used as a fuel.
 It is used as an Antiperspirant and in purification of various chemicals.
 It is also used in making Gun powder

Diamond and Graphite – Structure, Uses, Properties, Applications

The word “carbon” comes from the Latin word “carbo,” which means “charcoal.” It is
the fourth most plentiful element in the universe and the second most abundant
element in human bodies, which may come as a surprise to us (the first being oxygen).
In reality, all organic substances on the planet contain carbon in some form or element,
which is why it is the foundation for the entire discipline of organic chemistry.
The number of electrons in carbon is 6, which equals its atomic number. Carbon is a
non-metal that is symbolised by the letter. It consists of protons, neutrons, and
electrons, all of which have a count of six. Because it can virtually infinitely connect with
other carbon atoms, a carbon atom is considered unique and remarkable. This is due to
its atom’s tiny size, which allows it to easily fit into larger molecules. Each of its atoms
has four valence electrons in its outer shell, which can form chemical connections with
molecules and other atoms.

Diamond
Diamond is a type of carbon that has its atoms arranged in a diamond cubic crystal
structure. Another solid form of carbon known as graphite is the chemically stable form
of carbon at ambient temperature and pressure, but diamond almost never transforms
to it.
Diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any natural substance,
qualities that make it ideal for cutting and polishing equipment in the industry. They’re
also why diamond anvil cells may expose materials to pressures found deep
underground.

Structure of Diamond
Diamond’s carbon atoms are reported to form strong chemical interactions with the
four other carbon atoms, forming a flawless tetrahedron structure that extends
throughout the crystal. The carbon atoms are sp3 hybridised, and the carbon-carbon
atom bond lengths are equivalent. As a result, a three-dimensional network of strong
covalent connections arises in Diamond.
Diamond has a melting point of approximately 3843 K and a density of approximately
3.51 g/cm3. It is known to be a poor conductor of electricity because its valence
electrons become trapped in C-C sigma covalent bonds, preventing them from
conducting electricity.

Applications of Diamond
 Diamond is the hardest substance on the planet, with a variety of uses and
applications. It’s used to make tools for grinding, cutting, drilling, and other tasks.
 Diamond is utilised in the production of tungsten filaments used in light bulbs.
 It’s a metal that’s utilised to make jewellery.
 The majority of surgeons employ diamonds as a high-precision instrument in the
removal of cataracts from the eyes.

Graphite
Graphite is a crystalline carbon that occurs naturally. It’s a mineral that can be found in
metamorphic and igneous rocks as a native element. Graphite is a mineral with a wide
range of properties.
It has low specific gravity and is exceedingly soft. It cleaves with very light pressure. It is,
on the other hand, exceedingly heat resistant and almost inert when in contact with
almost any other substance. It has a wide range of applications in metallurgy and
industry due to its extreme characteristics.

Structure of Graphite
Structure: All of the carbon atoms in graphite are stated to have stable chemical
interactions with the other three carbon atoms, resulting in sheets that resemble
chicken wire; weak forces hold the sheet in place fast. When you write with a pencil on
paper, these sheets slide apart, leaving the graphite fragments as blemishes on the
page.
In the Graphite structure, the carbon atoms are sp2 hybridised and oriented in the same
plane, forming hexagonal rings. There are several layers of particles in the rings. With a
density of 2.26 g/cm3, graphite is said to have low electrical conductivity.

Applications of Graphite
 Graphite powder, in the form of dispersion material or powder, is used as a
lubricant.
 In lead pencils, graphite is commonly utilised.
 It is utilised in the production of carbon electrodes for electrolytic cells because it
is a good conductor of electricity.
 Because of its high melting point, it is used in the production of graphite crucibles.
 It’s found in a lot of nuclear reactors and moderators.

What is Catenation and Tetravalency?

Carbon is a non-metallic element. Carbon is found in very small amounts in the earth’s
crust and atmosphere. Even though there is just a limited amount of carbon in nature,
the carbon atom is extremely important in many aspects of life. We, as well as all living
things, plants, and animals, are made up of organic compounds, which are carbon-based
compounds.

What are organic compounds?

The compounds of carbon are referred to as organic compounds. Most organic
compounds contain hydrogen, while many others have oxygen or other elements in
addition to carbon. As a result, hydrocarbons (substances containing hydrogen and
oxygen) and their derivatives make up the vast majority of organic compounds.
Organic compounds consist of any of a vast class of chemical compounds in which one
or more carbon atoms are covalently connected to atoms of other elements, the most
common of which being hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen.
For example- Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6), Ethene (C2H4), Ethyne (C2H2), ethanol
(C2H5OH), Ethanal (CH3CHO), Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) are some examples of organic
compounds. Carbides, carbonates, and cyanides are among the few carbon-containing
chemicals that are not categorized as organic.
All living organisms, such as plants and animals, contain organic compounds. All organic
compounds were originally derived from natural minerals obtained from living things.
As a result, it was assumed that organic compounds could only be generated within a
living body (plant or animal body) and that the preparation required a ‘vital force’ that
creates living things.
In 1828, a scientist named Friedrich Wohler disproved this vital force theory of organic
compounds. Urea is an organic compound that was previously assumed to be formed
only inside the bodies of living beings such as animals. In the laboratory,
Friedrich Wohler synthesized the organic compound urea [CO(NH 2)2] from the inorganic
compound ‘ammonium cyanate’ (NH4CNO). As a result, the vital force theory for the
synthesis of organic compounds was rejected.

Why organic compounds are generally Covalent?

The organic compounds have low melting points and low boiling points. Organic
compounds (or carbon compounds) have low melting and boiling points, indicating that
the forces of attraction between their molecules are weak. They are, therefore, covalent
compounds. Furthermore, most organic compounds are non-conductors of electricity,
which indicates they do not contain ions. This also shows that organic compounds are
naturally covalent.

Existence of a Large number of Organic compounds

There are more than 5 million organic compounds recognized at this time. Every day,
scientists prepare a large number of new organic compounds. The number of organic
compounds outnumbers the total number of compounds made up of all other
elements.
The two properties of carbon elements that lead to the formation of a large number of
organic compounds are catenation and tetravalency that are discussed further below:
Catenation
The ability of carbon atoms to join with one another via covalent bonds to form long
chains or rings of carbon atoms is one reason for the existence of a large number of
organic compounds or carbon compounds. Carbon has an unusual property since it can
form the longest chains with its atoms.
Catenation is the property of the carbon element that allows its atoms to link together
to form long carbon chains. We term a property catenation when an element forms
bonds between its atoms to form large molecules. Self-linking is another term for
catenation.
For example- In molecules like some proteins, carbon may form the longest chains,
containing millions of carbon atoms. Catenation is a chemical bonding that occurs only
between atoms of the same element that have a valence of at least two and create
relatively strong bonds with each other.
This property is prevalent among carbon atoms, notable among sulphur and silicon
atoms, and slightly present among germanium, nitrogen atoms. As a result, a large
number of organic compounds are due to the property of catenation of carbon
elements. Three types of chains can be formed when carbon atoms combine. As shown
below, there are three types of chains: straight chains branched chains, and closed
chains or ring type chains.

Various carbon chains

Tetravalency
The carbon atom has a total of 6 electrons because its atomic number is 6. Its electronic
configuration can be written as 2,4. It means the outermost shell has four electrons. To
achieve a stable electronic configuration, carbon requires four electrons to achieve the
inert gas configuration. So carbon follows the octet rule and makes four covalent bonds
with other atoms. As a result, carbon is tetravalent, meaning it has a Valency of four and
can create four covalent bonds with not just carbon atoms but also with other atoms.
This is referred to as carbon tetravalency.
Carbon has the remarkable property of forming extremely strong covalent bonds,
making carbon molecules extremely stable. Another reason for the abundance of
organic compounds or carbon compounds is that carbon has a Valency of four, which is
relatively big. Because of its large Valency of 4, a carbon atom can make covalent bonds
with numerous other atoms, including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and many
others. As a result, a large number of compounds are formed.

What are Hydrocarbons?

Alkanes and cycloalkanes are hydrocarbons with no double or triple bond functional
groups, depending on whether the carbon atoms of the molecule are organized in
chains or rings. Alkenes and alkynes are hydrocarbons with double or triple bonds,
respectively. The following mentioned are the rules for naming hydrocarbons. Isomers
are chemical molecules with the same molecular formula but distinct structures. The
isomers will be discussed in greater depth further down.

Naming of Hydrocarbons
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) established the official
names or systematic names of organic compounds in 1958, and they are known as
IUPAC names or IUPAC nomenclature. The following points should be kept in mind while
using the IUPAC method to name hydrocarbons.
 The number of carbon atoms in a hydrocarbon is represented by the stem below.

One carbon atom Meth

Two carbon atoms Eth

Three carbon atoms Prop

Four carbon atoms But

Five carbon atoms Pent

Six carbon atoms Hex

Seven carbon atoms Hept

Eight carbon atoms Oct

Nine carbon atoms Non

Ten carbon atoms Dec

 The term ‘ane’ is written after the stem to denote a saturated hydrocarbon with
single bonds.
 The term ‘ene’ is written after the stem to denote an unsaturated hydrocarbon
with double bonds.
 The word ‘yne’ is written after the stem to denote an unsaturated hydrocarbon
with triple bonds.
Naming of Saturated Hydrocarbons
 The naming of CH4– This chemical has one carbon atom, which is denoted by
‘meth’. It’s saturated since it’s made up entirely of single bonds. The ‘ane’ at the
end denotes a saturated hydrocarbon. When the ‘meth’ and ‘ane’ are combined,
the IUPAC nomenclature for this substance is ‘methane’ (meth+ane=methane).
Methane is the IUPAC name as well as the common name for the hydrocarbon
CH4.

Structure of Methane CH4

 The naming of C2H6– The letter ‘eth’ denotes the presence of two carbon atoms in
this molecule. It’s saturated since it’s made up entirely of single bonds. The ‘ane’
at the end denotes a saturated hydrocarbon. When ‘eth’ and ‘ane’ are combined,
 the IUPAC name for this combination is ‘ethane’ (eth+ane=ethane). The IUPAC
and common names for the hydrocarbon C2H6 are identical, ethane.

Structure of Ethane C2H6

IUPAC Nomenclature for Branched-Chain Saturated Hydrocarbons
The following rules should be kept in mind when using the IUPAC technique to name
saturated hydrocarbons with branching chains.
1. In the structure of the compound to be named, the longest chain of carbon atoms
is located first. The compound is then classified as a derivative of the alkane
hydrocarbon, which is the carbon atom chain with the largest length. This is
referred to as “parent hydrocarbon.”
2. The alkyl groups found as side chains (branches) are referred to as substituents
and are denoted as methyl (CH3-) and ethyl (C2H5-) respectively.
3. The longest carbon chain’s carbon atoms are numbered in such a way that the
alkyl groups (substituents) receive the lowest possible number.
4. The number of the carbon atom to which the alkyl group is attached is used to
denote its position.
5. Writing the ‘position and name of alkyl group’ exactly before the name of the
‘parent hydrocarbon’ yields the IUPAC name of the compound.

Naming of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons with Double Bond

 The naming of C2H4– The letter ‘eth’ denotes the existence of two carbon atoms
in this molecule. This hydrocarbon is unsaturated because it has a carbon-carbon
double bond. The ‘ene’ at the ending is used to denote a double bond. When the
letters ‘eth’ and ‘ene’ are combined, the IUPAC name for this combination is
‘ethene’ (eth+ene=ethene). Ethene has a common name known as ethylene.

Structure of ethene C2H4

 The naming of C3H6– The letter ‘prop’ denotes the presence of three carbon
atoms in this molecule. This hydrocarbon is unsaturated because it has a carbon-
carbon double bond. The ‘ene’ at the ending is used to denote a double bond.
When the letters ‘prop’ and ‘ene’ are combined, the IUPAC nomenclature for this
combination is ‘propene’ (prop+ene=propene). Propane has a common
name known as propylene.
 Structure of Propene, C3H6
Naming of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons with Triple Bond
 The naming of C2H2– The letter ‘eth’ denotes the presence of two carbon atoms in
this molecule. This hydrocarbon is unsaturated because it has a carbon-carbon
triple bond. The ‘yne’ at the ending is used to denote a triple bond. When the
letters ‘eth’ and ‘yne’ are combined, the IUPAC name for this combination is
‘ethyne’ (eth+yne = ethyne). Acetylene is the common term for ethyne.

Structure of ethyne, C2H2

 The naming of C3H4– The letter ‘prop’ denotes the presence of three carbon
atoms in this molecule. This hydrocarbon is unsaturated because it has a carbon-
carbon triple bond. The ‘yne’ at the ending is used to denote a triple bond. When
the letters ‘prop’ and ‘yne’ are combined, the IUPAC nomenclature for this
combination is ‘propyne’ (prop+yne=propyne). Propyne has a common
name known as methyl-acetylene.

Structure of Propyne, C3H4

What are Isomers?
A molecular formula represents only one substance in inorganic chemistry. For example,
HSO stands for sulphuric acid, which is a single compound. However, in organic
chemistry, a single molecular formula can be used to represent two or more distinct
molecules. This is because the identical carbon atoms in organic molecules can be
arranged in a variety of ways to produce distinct structures and thus different
compounds. In organic chemistry, for example, the same chemical formula C 4H10 can
represent two different compounds: normal-butane and iso-butane. The following
example will help to clarify this topic.
 Consider the chemical molecule butane (C 4H10). This chemical has four carbon
atoms that can be linked in two ways to create two different structures. To begin,
all four carbon atoms are connected in a continuous straight chain to form the
structure seen below. The compound normal butane, abbreviated as n-butane, is
represented by this structure.
 In the second case, three carbon atoms can be combined in a straight chain and
the fourth carbon atom can be joined in a side chain, resulting in the structure
illustrated below. Iso-butane is the chemical that has this structure.
Although n-butane and iso-butane have the same chemical formula (C 4H10), their
structures are distinct. They’re known as isomers. Isomers are chemical molecules with
the same molecular formula but distinct structures. In other words, isomers are organic
molecules that have the same chemical formula but differ in their carbon atom
configurations. Isomers include normal butane and isobutane, which have the same
chemical formula but distinct structures or arrangements of carbon atoms. Iso-butane
has a branched-chain structure, whereas normal butane has a straight-chain structure.
It’s also worth noting that the IUPAC names for n-butane and iso-butane are 2-
methylpropane or simply methyl propane.
Isomerism refers to the existence of two or more distinct chemical molecules with the
same molecular formula but different structures. Only hydrocarbons with four or more
carbon atoms can have two or more distinct configurations of carbon atoms, making
isomerism possible. Since only one arrangement of carbon atoms is allowed in
hydrocarbons with 1, 2, or 3 carbon atoms per molecule, no isomerism is possible.
For example, no isomerism is possible in methane, ethane, or propane since they
contain only one, two, or three carbon atoms, respectively, and various configurations
of carbon atoms are not possible with only 1, 2, or 3 carbon atoms. The chemical butane
(C4H10) can have two isomers. Butane’s two isomers have already been discussed. There
are three isomers of the chemical pentane (C5H12), and five isomers of the compound
hexane (C6H14). The number of potential isomers increases rapidly as the number of
carbon atoms in an alkane molecule increases.

What are Homologous Series?

In the same way that all elements with similar electron structures have similar chemical
properties and are grouped together in the same periodic table group, all organic
compounds with similar structures have similar properties and are grouped together in
the same group or series. The organic compounds are then organized in increasing
molecular mass order.
A homologous series is a collection of organic compounds with identical structures and
chemical characteristics that differ only in the CH2 group between them. Homologous
refers to the different chemical molecules that make up a homologous series. The two
neighbouring molecules are clearly separated by one carbon atom and two hydrogen
atoms (or CH2 group).

Homologous Series of alkanes- Since all alkanes have identical structures with single
covalent bonds and chemical characteristics, they can be classified together in a
homologous series. The first five alkanes in the homologous series are listed below.
Alkanes Molecular formula

Methane CH4

Ethane C2H6

Propane C3H8

Butane C4H10

Pentane C5H12
The homologous series of alkanes have the general formula CnH2n+2, where n is the
number of carbon atoms in one molecule of alkane. One carbon atom makes up the first
member of the alkane series. The second alkane series member has two carbon atoms.
The third alkane series member has three carbon atoms. The fourth alkane series
member has four carbon atoms, while the fifth alkane series member has five carbon
atoms.

Homologous Series of alkenes- The homologous series of alkenes has the general
formula CnH2n, where n is the number of carbon atoms in one molecule of alkene. The
first five alkenes in the homologous series are listed below.
Alkenes Molecular Formula

Ethene C2H4

Propen
C3H6
e

Butene C4H8

Pentene C5H10

Hexene C6H12
The alkene series begins with the first member, which has two carbon atoms. The
second member of the alkene series has three carbon atoms. The third member of the
alkene series has four carbon atoms. The fourth members of the alkene series have 5
carbon atoms, whereas the fifth member has 6 carbon atoms.

Homologous Series of alkynes– The homologous series of alkynes has the general
formula CnH2n-2, where n is the number of carbon atoms in one molecule of alkyne. The
first five alkynes in the homologous sequence are listed below.
Alkynes Molecular Formula

Ethyne C2H2

Propyn
C3H4
e

Butyne C4H6

Pentyne C5H8

Hexyne C6H10
The alkyne series begins with the first member, which has two carbon atoms. The
second member of the alkyne series has three carbon atoms. The third member of the
alkyne series has four carbon atoms. The fourth member of the alkyne series each has 5
carbon atoms, whereas the fifth member has 6 carbon atoms.

Characteristic of Homologous Series

The following are the properties of the Homologous Series.
 The chemical characteristics of all substances in a homologous series are similar.
All alkane series molecules, such as methane, ethane, propane, and others,
undergo substitution reactions with chlorine.
 A homologous series’ members can all be represented by the same general
formula.
 In their molecular formulas, any two neighbouring homologous differ by one
carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms.
 With increasing molecular mass, members of a homologous series display a
steady change in their physical properties.
 Any two neighbouring homologous molecules have a molecular mass difference
of 14u.

Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

Carbon compounds are referred to as organic compounds. Most organic compounds
contain hydrogen, and many organic compounds contain oxygen or other elements in
addition to carbon. As a result, the vast majority of organic compounds are
hydrocarbons, which contain only hydrogen and carbon. Let’s talk about hydrocarbons
and their various types.
What are Hydrocarbons?
Hydrocarbon is a chemical compound that consists only of hydrogen and carbon.
Hydrocarbon is made up of two elements: hydrogen and carbon.
Since methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), ethyne (C2H2), and so on are all made up of only two
elements: hydrogen and carbon, so these are all hydrocarbons.
Petroleum, often known as crude oil, is the most important natural source of
hydrocarbons. It is extracted from underground oil deposits by drilling oil wells.
Hydrocarbons can also be found in natural gas found above petroleum deposits.

Types of Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons are of two types which are saturated

hydrocarbons and unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Saturated Hydrocarbons
A saturated hydrocarbon is one in which all of the carbon atoms are connected by a
single bond. Saturated hydrocarbons are also called alkanes.
An alkane is a hydrocarbon in which the carbon atoms are only connected together by a
single covalent bond. In an alkane, there are no double or triple bonds. As a result, the
hydrocarbons methane, ethane, propane, and butane form a series of compounds
known as alkanes. All of these saturated hydrocarbons have ‘ane’ at the end of their
names.
The general formula of saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes is CnH2n+2 where n is the
number of carbon atoms in one molecule of the alkane.
 If an alkane has 1 carbon atom in its molecules, then n= 1, and its molecular
formula will be C1H2(1)+2 or CH4.
  If an alkane has 2 carbon atoms in its molecule, then n= 2, and its molecular
formula will be C2H2(2)+2 or C2H6.
 If an alkane has 3 carbon atoms in its molecule, then n= 3, and its molecular
formula will be C3H2(3)+2 or C3H8.
 If an alkane has 4 carbon atoms in its molecule, then n= 4, and its molecular
formula will be C4H2(4)+2 or C4H10.
Methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), and butane (C4H10), are all saturated
hydrocarbons which contain only carbon-carbon single bonds are shown below.

Structural formulae of some alkanes.

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
An unsaturated hydrocarbon is one in which two carbon atoms are connected by a
double bond or triple bond. Two important unsaturated hydrocarbons are ethene (C 2H4)
and ethyne (C2H2) because ethyne contains a triple bond and ethene contains a double
bond between the two carbon atoms.
A double bond is formed by sharing two pairs of electrons between two carbon atoms
whereas, a triple bond is formed by sharing three pairs of electrons between two
carbon atoms.
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are typically obtained from petroleum through a process
known as cracking. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are of two types,
 those containing carbon-carbon double bonds called alkenes and
 those containing carbon-carbon triple bonds called alkynes.

Alkenes
An alkene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon with two carbon atoms connected together by
a double bond. Alkenes have a double bond between two carbon atoms that are formed
by sharing two pairs of electrons, resulting in a total of four electrons.
Since they have a double bond between two carbon atoms, ethene (CH) and propene
(CH) are alkenes. Since an alkene has a double bond between two carbon atoms, the
molecule of the simplest alkene will have two carbon atoms. There cannot be only a
single carbon atom in an alkene. Alkene has the general formula CnH2n where n is the
number of carbon atoms in one molecule of the alkene.
 If an alkene has 2 carbon atoms in its molecules, then n= 2, and its molecular
formula will be C2H2(2) or C2H4.
 If an alkene has 3 carbon atoms in its molecule, then n= 3, and its molecular
formula will be C3H2(3) or C3H6.
 If an alkene has 4 carbon atoms in its molecule, then n= 4, and its molecular
formula will be C4H2(4) or C4H8.

Alkynes
An alkyne is an unsaturated hydrocarbon with two carbon atoms connected together by
a triple bond. Alkynes have a triple bond between two carbon atoms that are formed by
sharing three pairs of electrons, resulting in a total of six electrons.
Since they have a triple bond between two carbon atoms, ethyne and propyne are
alkynes. Since an alkyne has a triple bond between two carbon atoms, the molecule of
the most simple alkyne will have two carbon atoms. There can not be only a single
carbon atom in an alkyne. Alkyne has the general formula CnH2n-2 where n is the number
of carbon atoms in one molecule of the alkyne.
 If an alkyne has 2 carbon atoms in its molecules, then n= 2, and its molecular
formula will be C2H2(2)-2 or C2H2.
 If an alkyne has 3 carbon atoms in its molecules, then n= 3, and its molecular
formula will be C3H2(3)-2 or C3H4.
 If an alkyne has 4 carbon atoms in its molecules, then n= 4, and its molecular
formula will be C4H2(4)-2 or C4H6.
The simplest alkene is ethene and the simplest alkyne is ethyne.

Structural formulae of ethene and ethyne.

Alkyl Groups and Cyclic Hydrocarbons
Organic compounds are compounds of carbon. Hydrocarbons are organic compounds
that contain hydrogen and carbon. Petroleum, also known as crude oil, is the most
important natural source of hydrocarbons. Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons are
the two types of hydrocarbons. When hydrocarbons are arranged in the form of rings,
they are called cyclic hydrocarbons. The saturated and unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons
are discussed further below. Also, the alkyl groups which are formed when one
hydrogen atom is removed from a saturated hydrocarbon are also discussed below.
What are Saturated Hydrocarbons?
A saturated hydrocarbon is a hydrocarbon in which all of the carbon atoms are
connected by a single bond. Alkanes are another name for saturated hydrocarbon. An
alkane is a hydrocarbon with only a single covalent bond between the carbon atoms. In
an alkane, there are no double or triple bonds. Methane, ethane, propane, and butane
among others are the compounds known as alkanes.
Saturated hydrocarbons, or alkanes, have the general formula CnH2n+2, where n is the
number of carbon atoms in one molecule of the alkane.
What are Unsaturated Hydrocarbons?
Unsaturated hydrocarbons are hydrocarbons in which the carbon atoms are connected
by a double or triple bond. A double bond is formed when two carbon atoms share two
pairs of electrons, whereas a triple bond is formed when three pairs of electrons are
shared between two carbon atoms.
An alkene is an unsaturated hydrocarbon with two carbon atoms connected by a
double bond. Alkene has the general formula CnH2n, where n is the number of carbon
atoms in one molecule.
The simplest alkene will have two carbon atoms in the molecules since an alkene has
only a double bond between two carbon atoms. There does not exist a single-carbon
alkene. Ethene is the simplest alkene with two carbon atoms.
An alkyne is an unsaturated hydrocarbon with two carbon atoms connected by a triple
bond. Alkyne has the general formula CnH2n-2 where n is the number of carbon atoms in
one molecule of the alkyne.
The simplest alkyne will have two carbon atoms in the molecules since an alkyne has
only a triple bond between two carbon atoms. There does not exist a single-carbon
alkyne. Ethyne is the simplest alkyne with two carbon atoms. Hydrocarbons that are
unsaturated are more reactive than saturated hydrocarbons. So alkenes and alkynes are
often more chemically reactive than alkanes.
Alkyl Group
An alkyl group is formed when one hydrogen atom is removed from a saturated
hydrocarbon (alkane). When this hydrogen is removed, the stem changes from -ane to -
yl, indicating an alkyl group. Alkyl is a functional group of organic chemicals that is
made up entirely of carbon and hydrogen atoms organized in a chain.
The methyl group (CH3-) and the ethyl group (C2H5-) are two examples of alkyl groups.
The methyl group -CH3 is formed when one hydrogen is removed from methane, CH 4.
Similarly, removing one hydrogen atom from ethane (CH3CH3) results in the formation of
an ethyl group -CH2CH3. They are not found on their own, instead, they are found
attached to other hydrocarbons. The structural formulas of the methyl group and ethyl
group are listed below.

Alkyl Groups
The above free line (-) on the carbon atom of the alkyl group indicates that one valency
of carbon atoms in the alkyl group is free. Some functional groups or other alkyl groups
can be attached to this free valency of carbon. The general formula of an alkyl group
is CnH2n+1 where n is the number of carbon atoms.
Cyclic Hydrocarbons
In addition to straight-chain and branched-chain hydrocarbons, some other
hydrocarbons have carbon atoms arranged in a ring. Such hydrocarbons are called cyclic
hydrocarbons.
The carbon chain of a cyclic hydrocarbon forms a ring. Saturated or unsaturated cyclic
hydrocarbons can exist. Countless organic compounds exist in which a sequence of
carbon atoms closes to form a ring rather than being connected in a chain. The
saturated cyclic hydrocarbons and the unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons are discussed
further below.
Saturated Cyclic Hydrocarbons
Cycloalkanes are saturated hydrocarbons that contain only one ring. A cycloalkane is a
cyclic hydrocarbon with single carbon-carbon bonds on all of its carbon atoms.
They have two fewer hydrogen atoms than an alkane with the same number of carbon
atoms, with a general formula of CnH2n (n is an integer greater than 2). Cyclopropane
(C3H6) is the simplest cycloalkane, with a three-carbon ring. Its extremely strained
geometry makes it unstable and reactive, whereas cyclohexane (C 6H12) is the most
studied, best known, most important cycloalkane. Cycloalkane rings are commonly
represented as polygons, with each corner corresponding to a carbon atom to which the
required number of hydrogen atoms are attached to bring the total number of bonds to
four.

The structural formula of cyclopropane

Cyclic hydrocarbons’ structural formulas can be represented in a number of ways, two
of which are illustrated above. Each atom can be represented by the structure on the
left in the diagram above. As shown in the triangle on the right, omitting the element
symbols and only showing the shape is simple shorthand. The vertices of the triangle
are thought to be carbon atoms. The most basic cycloalkane is cyclopropane and
because of its highly strained geometry, it is quite unstable and reactive. Cyclohexane is
a cycloalkane with six carbons. Larger cycloalkanes exist, but they are rare.

Unsaturated Cyclic Hydrocarbons

Unsaturated cyclic hydrocarbons are also possible. A cyclic hydrocarbon having at least
one carbon-carbon double bond is known as a cycloalkene.
A cyclic hydrocarbon having at least one carbon-carbon triple bond is known as a
cycloalkyne. Benzene is one of the most common cycloalkenes. A benzene molecule has
six carbon atoms and six hydrogen atoms. There are three carbon-carbon double bonds
and three carbon-carbon single bonds in this molecule. It also includes six single carbon-
hydrogen bonds. Below are the structures of cyclohexene (C6H10) and benzene (C6H6).

Unsaturated hydrocarbons
Cyclohexene (C6H10) is a flammable liquid with a distinctive odour. Due to the
functionality of the double bond, which allows a wide range of chemistries to be applied
and downstream intermediates and products to be derived from it, such as the epoxide,
diol, and other useful downstream products, it is a reactive alkene that is used as a
building block in several different markets.
Functional Groups
Functional Groups if added to hydrocarbons change their functionality and properties. A
hydrocarbon is a compound made up of hydrogen and carbon, which can be either
saturated or unsaturated. A saturated hydrocarbon is one in which the carbon atoms
are joined by only a single bond and an unsaturated hydrocarbon is one in which a
double or triple bond between carbon atoms is present. Generally, a saturated
hydrocarbon is very less reactive, but when another ‘atom’ or ‘group of atoms’ is
attached to it, the resulting molecule becomes highly reactive depending on the
attached group. The other ‘atom’ or ‘group of atoms in a carbon compound is called a
functional group.
What are Functional Groups?
A functional group is an atom or a group of atoms that makes a carbon compound or an
organic compound reactive and determines its properties.
Functional groups are atoms within molecules that have distinct properties regardless of
the other atoms in the molecule. In organic chemistry, functional groups are the
substituent atoms or groups of atoms that are connected to certain molecules. The halo
group, alcohol group, aldehyde group, ketone group, carboxylic acid group, alkene
group, alkyne group, etc. are some of the most important functional groups in organic
chemistry.

List of Functional Groups

All the useful functional groups can be listed as follows:
 Hydrocarbons
 Halo (Alkyl Halide) Group
 Alcohol Group
 Aldehyde Group
 Ketone Group
 Carboxylic Acid Group
Hydrocarbons
 Alkene Group is a carbon-carbon double bond. The compounds containing the
alkene group are known as alkenes. The homologous series of alkenes have the
general formula CnH2n, where n is the number of carbon atoms in one molecule.
 Alkyne Group is a carbon-carbon triple bond. The compounds containing the
alkyne group are known as alkynes. The homologous series of alkynes have the
general formula CnH2n-2, where n is the number of carbon atoms in one molecule.
Halo (Alkyl Halide) Group
Depending on whether a chlorine, bromine, or iodine atom is attached to a carbon atom
of the organic compound, the halo group can be chloro (-Cl), bromo (-Br), or iodo (-I).
Since the elements chlorine, bromine, and iodine are collectively known as halogen, the
Chloro, Bromo, and Iodo groups are referred to as halo groups and are denoted by the
symbol -X.
Haloalkanes are formed when one hydrogen atom in an alkane is replaced with a
halogen atom. Haloalkanes have the general formula CnH2n+1X, where X represents the
halogens. R-X is the formula for haloalkanes, where R is an alkyl group and X is the
halogen atom.
Alcohol Group
One oxygen and one hydrogen atom are joined together to form the alcohol group (-
OH) and they are also known as the hydroxyl group. Any class of organic compounds
that include one or more hydroxyl (OH) groups linked to a carbon atom of the alkyl
group is an alcoholic group.
Alcohols are organic water (H2O) derivatives in which one of the hydrogen atoms has
been replaced by an alkyl group, which is often represented by R in organic structures.
Ethanol [C2H5OH] and methanol [CH3OH] are the most common examples of alcohol.
The homologous series of alcohols have the general formula CnH2n+1OH. Alcohols are
employed as sweeteners and in the manufacture of perfumes, as well as being
important intermediates in the synthesis of other compounds.
Aldehyde Group
One carbon atom, one hydrogen atom, and one oxygen atom are joined together to
form the aldehyde group (-CHO). Any organic compound in which a carbon atom has a
double bond with an oxygen atom, a single bond with a hydrogen atom, and a single
bond with another atom or group of atoms (designated R in general chemical formulas
and structure diagrams) is called an aldehyde.
Aldehydes have the general molecular formula CnH2nO, where n is the number of carbon
atoms in one molecule. Many aldehydes have pleasant scents, and they are created by
dehydrogenation (removal of hydrogen) from alcohols, which is how the term
“aldehyde” was derived. The two simple aldehydes are formaldehyde HCHO also known
as methanal and acetaldehyde CH3CHO also known as ethanal.

Ketone Group
One carbon atom and one oxygen atom make up the ketone group (-CO-). The presence
of a carbonyl group, in which the carbon atom is covalently bonded to an oxygen atom,
distinguishes ketone from other organic molecules. Other than oxygen carbon is
attached to the alkyl groups or hydrocarbon radicals (R) form the remaining two bonds.
Since a ketone group is always found in the middle of a carbon chain, a ketone must
have at least three carbon atoms in its molecules, one ketone group carbon atom, and
two carbon atoms on both sides. Ketones with less than three carbon atoms are not
really possible. Ketone has the general molecular formula CnH2nO where n is the number
of carbon atoms in one molecule. The simplest ketone is acetone CH 3COCH3, also known
as propanone.
The physiological effects of ketone molecules are significant. They can be present in a
variety of sugars as well as pharmaceutical chemicals such as natural and synthetic
steroid hormones. The anti-inflammatory drug cortisone contains three ketone groups
in its molecules.
Carboxylic Acid Group
Carboxylic acids, often known as organic acids, are organic molecules that include the
carboxylic acid group. Carboxylic acids are sometimes known as alkanoic acids.
The carbonyl (C=O) and hydroxyl (-OH) groups together make up the carboxyl (-COOH)
group, where carbon from carbonyl group is attachd to hydroxyl group with single
bond.
The homologous series of carboxylic acids have the general formula R-COOH, where R
represents an alkyl group. Acetic acid CH3COOH also known as ethanoic acid is the most
common carboxylic acid.
The image added below shows the nomenclature of the various functional groups.
Ether group
The Ether group is similar to alcohols but instead of hydrogen, there is an alkyl group
attached to oxygen. The oxygen molecule (-O-) is attached to two alkyl groups (R and R’)
with a single bond, forming the ether group. R-O-R’ is the general formula for the ether
group. Ethers are very useful and diverse compounds as they are used in the formation
of resins, dyes, plastic, paints, oils, etc.

Functional Group Table

The table of most of the useful functional groups is as follows:
Functional Group and
Formula Suffix Example

Halo Alkanes, R-X Alkyl Halide Ethyl Chloride

Alcohol, R-OH -ol Butanol, Propanol

Aldehyde, R-CHO -al Methnal (Formeldehyde)

Functional Group and
Formula Suffix Example

Sodium Ethanoate (Sodium

-oate
Carboxylate, R-COO– Acetate)

Carboxylic Acid, R-COOH -oic acid Ethanoic Acid (Acetic Acid)

Alkyl
Ethyl Butanoate (Ethyl Butyrate)
Ester, R-(CO)-O-R’ Alkanoate

Acyl Halide, R-(CO)-X -oyl halide Ethanoyl Chloride (Acetyl chloride)

Ether, R-O-R’ Alkyl Ether Diethyl Ether (Ethoxyethane)

Nomenclature of Common Functional Groups
The nomenclature is the systematic way of naming organic molecules with a set of rules
established by the IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry). The basic
rules of this system are as follows:
 Firstly, identify the longest chain in the organic compound.
 Number the chain of carbon from the side which contains a higher-priority
functional group.
 Name the chain with the prefix meth, eth, prop, but, pent, etc with respect to the
number of carbon present in the longest chain.
 Name the functional group of the compounds using the appropriate suffixes
according to the present functional group.
 If there is more than one functional group present in the chain, the highest
priority functional group decides the suffix, and other functional groups are used
as a prefix, with alphabetic order (if there is still more than one functional group
left after deciding the suffix)
Example: Name the organic compound, CH3CH2CHClCOOH.
Solution:
Number the carbon atoms in the given compound, from -COOH side as it is the most
reactive group in the given compound. i.e.,

As, there are 4 carbon in the longst present chain. It’s name starts with bute, and there
is chlorine at second carbon.
Thus, its name is 2-chloro buten-1-oic acid.
Example: What is the IUPAC name of the organic compound CHClBrCH2CHO?
Solution:
Number the carbon atoms in the given compound, from -CHO side as it is the most
reactive group in the given compound. i.e.,

As there are 3 carbon present in the longest chain, it’s name starts with prop root word
and there are bromine and cholrine attached to the third carbon.
Thus, name of the given compounds is 3-bromo-3-cholor propen-1-al
Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds



Hydrocarbons are the most abundant carbon compounds such as alkanes, alkenes, and
alkynes. We’ll now discuss some of the chemical properties of hydrocarbons, which are
carbon compounds. Combustion reactions, substitution reactions, and addition
reactions are the chemical properties that will be discussed here. All types of
hydrocarbons (saturated and unsaturated) can be used in combustion reactions, but
only saturated hydrocarbons (or alkanes) can be used in substitution reactions, and only
unsaturated hydrocarbons can be used in addition reactions (alkenes and alkynes).
These reactions are discussed further below
What is Combustion Reaction?
Combustion is the process of burning a carbon compound in the air to produce carbon
dioxide, water, heat, and light. Burning is another term for combustion. The majority of
carbon compounds burn in the air, producing a great deal of heat. Alkanes, for example,
burn in air to produce a lot of heat, making them good fuels.
Combustion reaction for Carbon Compounds
Consider the burning of methane, a common alkane that is a substantial component of
natural gas.
When methane or natural gas is burned in an adequate supply of air, carbon dioxide
and water vapour are created, as well as a lot of heat.
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O + Heat + Light
(Methane) (Oxygen) (Carbon dioxide) (Water)
Methane or natural gas is utilized as a fuel in homes, transportation, and industry
because it produces a lot of heat when burned. Butane (C4H10) is the principal
component of the cooking gas (LPG) that we use in our homes. When butane (or LPG)
burns in the air in a gas stove’s burner, it produces carbon dioxide and water vapour, as
well as a lot of heat and light. Butane or LPG is a great fuel because of this reason.
 Combustion of saturated hydrocarbons– Saturated hydrocarbons, often known
as alkanes, burn with a blue, non-sooty flame in the air. This is due to the
relatively low proportion of carbon in saturated hydrocarbons, which is totally
oxidized by the oxygen in the air. However, if the availability of air and hence
oxygen for burning is reduced or limited, even saturated hydrocarbons will
undergo incomplete combustion, resulting in a sooty flame and a large amount of
 black smoke. The gas stoves and kerosene stoves that we use in our homes
include tiny holes or inlets for air to ensure that enough oxygen is available for
complete fuel combustion and a smokeless blue flame. When the flame of a gas
stove turns blue, the fuel has totally burned. When the fuel in a gas or kerosene
stove has entirely burned out, leaving a blue flame, the bottom of the cooking
utensils is clean from the outside. It does not turn black. In a gas stove, however,
if the fuel does not burn fully, a sooty flame is formed, which blackens the
bottoms of the cooking utensils from the outside.
 Combustion of unsaturated hydrocarbons– The unsaturated hydrocarbons, also
known as alkenes and alkynes, produce black smoke when they burn in the air
with a yellow, sooty flame. Ethene and ethyne, for example, emit a sooty flame
when burned in the air. Since the percentage of carbon in unsaturated
hydrocarbons is higher than that of alkanes, which do not get totally oxidized in
the oxygen in the air, they burn with a sooty flame. Air contains only around 21%
oxygen, which is insufficient for the full combustion of unsaturated hydrocarbons
with high carbon content. Unsaturated hydrocarbons, on the other hand, will
burn entirely in pure oxygen, generating a blue flame with no smoke. Acetylene,
an ethyne, is an example of an unsaturated hydrocarbon. Because of incomplete
combustion, acetylene burns with an extremely sooty flame in the air. The flame
produced does not have a high temperature. When acetylene and pure oxygen
are combined and burned, the acetylene burns entirely, generating a blue flame.
What is Substitution Reaction?
A substitution reaction occurs when one or more hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon are
replaced by other atoms such as chlorine. Chlorination is defined as the substitution of
hydrogen atoms with chlorine.
Saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes are known for their substitution reactions, such as
chlorination. Unsaturated hydrocarbons give addition reactions with halogens rather
than substitution reactions. In the presence of sunlight, saturated hydrocarbons, on the
other hand, undergo chlorine substitution reactions. Since they only have carbon-
carbon single bonds, saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes are relatively unreactive.
Saturated hydrocarbons do not react with many substances because they are
unreactive. We’ll now discuss the methane and chlorine substitution process.
Substitution reaction of methane with chlorine
In the presence of sunlight, methane reacts with chlorine to produce chloromethane
and hydrogen chloride.3
CH4 + Cl2 → CH3Cl + HCl
(Methane) (Chlorine) (Chloroethane) (Hydrogen chloride)
One H atom of methane has been substituted or replaced by a Cl atom in this reaction,
changing CH4 to CH3Cl.
Only one hydrogen atom of methane has been replaced by a chlorine atom in the
methane-chlorine reaction, yielding chloromethane, CHCl. It is possible to replace all of
the hydrogen atoms in methane with chlorine one by one by supplying additional
chlorine. We can make three more chemicals this way: dichloromethane or methylene
dichloride, CH2Cl2, trichloromethane or chloroform, CHCl3, and tetrachloromethane or
carbon tetrachloride, CCl4. Saturated hydrocarbons include methane CH4, ethane C2H6,
propane C3H8, butane C4H10, among others. As a result, all of these compounds will
undergo chlorine substitution reactions.
What is an Addition Reaction?
An addition reaction occurs when an unsaturated hydrocarbon reacts with another
chemical to produce a single product. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are known for their
addition reactions, which include the addition of hydrogen, chlorine, or bromine.
All unsaturated hydrocarbons with a double or triple bond provide additional reactions
as well. In other words, all alkenes and alkynes provide additional reactions. Let’s look at
an addition reaction that involves adding hydrogen to unsaturated hydrocarbons with
carbon-carbon double bonds.
Addition reaction of ethene with hydrogen
When ethene is heated in the presence of a nickel catalyst, it combines with hydrogen
to produce ethene.
CH2=CH2 + H2 → CH3-CH3 (in the presence of Ni catalyst)
(Ethene) (Hydrogen) (Ethane)
In this reaction, one H atom is added to each C atom of the ethene, causing the double
bond in the ethene to open up and create a single bond. One molecule of hydrogen is
added to an unsaturated hydrocarbon with a double bond to make a saturated
hydrocarbon with a single bond, which is called ethane. In general, unsaturated
hydrocarbons add hydrogen to produce saturated hydrocarbons in the presence of a
catalyst such as nickel (Ni). The process of adding hydrogen to an unsaturated
hydrocarbon to form a saturated hydrocarbon is known as hydrogenation. The
hydrogenation process takes place in the presence of nickel metals, which act as
catalysts.
 Only the addition reaction of hydrogen with unsaturated hydrocarbons has been
discussed. Other elements, such as chlorine (Cl2) and bromine (Br2), can also add
to unsaturated compounds such as alkenes and alkynes.
 Since bromine is employed as a test for unsaturated chemicals, it is particularly
significant. Bromine is employed in the form of bromine water for this purpose.
Bromine water is a solution of bromine in water.
 The presence of bromine in bromine water gives it a red-brown colour. When
bromine water is added to an unsaturated compound, bromine is added, and the
red-brown colour of bromine water is discharged, leaving the unsaturated
molecule colourless.
 As a result, if an organic chemical decolorizes bromine water, it is an unsaturated
compound with a double or triple bond.
 All unsaturated molecules, such as alkenes and alkynes, decolourize bromine
water, but saturated compounds, such as alkanes, do not.
 Since ethene and ethyne are unsaturated chemicals, they decolourize bromine
water, but methane and ethane are saturated hydrocarbons and do not
decolourize bromine water.
Test to distinguish between cooking oil and butter.
The bromine water test can spot the difference between cooking oil and butter
chemically. In separate test tubes, mix bromine water with a little cooking oil and butter.
 Bromine water decolorizes when cooked in oil, indicating that it is an unsaturated
compound.
 Since butter does not discolor bromine water, it is a saturated compound.