Module 2: Biological Bases of Behavior
Neuron Structure and Function
Neurons are specialized cells that transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.
Each neuron contains a cell body (soma) with a nucleus, dendrites that receive signals from other
neurons, and an axon that carries signals to other cells.
The myelin sheath, formed by glial cells, insulates axons and speeds signal transmission through
saltatory conduction. Damage to myelin, as in multiple sclerosis, disrupts neural communication
and causes motor and sensory problems.
Neural communication begins when neurotransmitters from other neurons bind to receptors on
dendrites, creating small electrical changes. If these changes reach threshold at the axon hillock,
an action potential fires—an all-or-none electrical impulse that travels down the axon.
At the synapse, the action potential triggers release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap.
These chemicals bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, either increasing (excitatory) or
decreasing (inhibitory) the likelihood of an action potential.
Major Neurotransmitter Systems
Neurotransmitters regulate countless processes from mood to movement. Imbalances contribute
to psychological and neurological disorders.
Dopamine plays central roles in motivation, reward, and movement. The mesolimbic pathway is
crucial for experiencing pleasure and drives addiction. Parkinson's disease results from dopamine
neuron loss in the substantia nigra, causing motor symptoms. Excess dopamine activity is
implicated in schizophrenia.
Serotonin influences mood, sleep, appetite, and aggression. Low serotonin is associated with
depression and anxiety. Most antidepressants increase serotonin availability at synapses.
Norepinephrine affects alertness, arousal, and stress responses. It activates the sympathetic
nervous system during threat, preparing the body for action.
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, reducing neural
excitability. Anti-anxiety medications often enhance GABA activity. Insufficient GABA is
linked to anxiety and seizure disorders.
Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter, essential for learning and memory. Excessive
glutamate can cause excitotoxicity, damaging or killing neurons.
Acetylcholine is crucial for muscle contraction, attention, and memory formation. Alzheimer's
disease involves severe loss of acetylcholine-producing neurons.
Brain Structure and Function
The hindbrain includes structures essential for survival. The medulla controls breathing, heart
rate, and blood pressure. The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance, and is involved in
motor learning. The pons relays information and regulates sleep.
The midbrain contains the reticular formation, which regulates consciousness and attention.
Damage can cause coma.
The forebrain contains the most complex structures. The thalamus serves as a sensory relay
station, directing information to appropriate cortical areas. The hypothalamus, though tiny,
regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and endocrine function. It also controls the autonomic
nervous system and is central to emotion and stress responses.
The limbic system includes the amygdala, which processes emotional information, particularly
fear. It evaluates threat and triggers fight-or-flight responses. The hippocampus is essential for
forming new explicit memories. Damage, as in patient H.M., prevents new long-term memory
formation while leaving older memories intact.
The cerebral cortex, the brain's outer layer, handles higher-level processing. The frontal lobes
house executive functions including planning, decision-making, and impulse control. The
prefrontal cortex is especially important for personality and social behavior. Broca's area in the
left frontal lobe is critical for speech production.
The parietal lobes process sensory information and spatial awareness. The somatosensory cortex
receives touch, temperature, and pain signals.
The occipital lobes contain the visual cortex and process visual information.
The temporal lobes process auditory information and are involved in memory and emotion.
Wernicke's area in the left temporal lobe is essential for language comprehension.
Brain hemispheres show some specialization. The left hemisphere typically dominates language
and analytical processing, while the right excels at spatial tasks and holistic processing.
However, hemispheric differences are often overstated; most functions involve both sides
working together.
Neuroplasticity
The brain demonstrates remarkable capacity for change throughout life. Neuroplasticity includes
forming new neural connections, strengthening or weakening existing ones, and even generating
new neurons in certain regions.
Experience shapes brain structure. London taxi drivers show enlarged hippocampi from
extensive spatial learning. Musicians display enhanced auditory cortex development.
Following brain injury, healthy areas may assume functions of damaged regions, particularly in
young brains. Rehabilitation leverages plasticity to retrain lost abilities.
Learning physically changes the brain by strengthening synaptic connections through long-term
potentiation, a process crucial for memory formation.