These are short notes, use the recommended text books to understand the concepts in details.

Module 1
How to solve a problem
Polya’s Four-Step Approach (Understand, Plan, Solve, Look Back) helps structure problem-solving in
thermodynamics.

Everyday Example: Cooling a Cup of Coffee

• Understand: Given an initial hot coffee temperature, find the time taken to cool to room temperature.
𝑑𝑄
• Plan: Use Newton’s Law of Cooling: 𝑑𝑡
= −ℎ𝐴(𝑇 − 𝑇ambient ).
• Solve: Integrate to find temperature as a function of time.
• Look Back: Check if the cooling time aligns with real-world expectations.

Chapter Flow

General
System Properties States
Introduction

Diagramatic Equilibrium
Process cycle
Representation States

Postulates Continuum Pressure Temperature

Energy

What is Thermodynamics?
Thermodynamics is the branch of science that deals with energy, its transformations, and its relation to
matter. It explains how heat, work, and internal energy interact within physical systems.

"Thermodynamics is the science of energy and its transformations, particularly concerning heat and work in a system."

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Thermodynamic System
A thermodynamic system is a region in space, or a specific quantity of matter chosen for analysis. The
boundary separates the system from its surroundings, and interactions occur through mass and energy
transfer.

Types of Thermodynamic Systems

Thermodynamic systems are classified based on their interaction with surroundings:
1. Closed System (Control Mass):
• Mass remains constant within the system.
• Energy (heat and work) can be transferred across the boundary.
• Example: A sealed pressure cooker – heat enters, but steam is not released.
2. Open System (Control Volume):
• Both mass and energy can be exchanged with surroundings.
• Example: A boiling kettle – heat enters, and steam escapes, meaning both energy and mass are
exchanged.
3. Isolated System:
• No exchange of mass or energy with surroundings.
• Example: A perfectly insulated thermos flask (ideal case).

Thermodynamic Properties:
Thermodynamic properties are measurable characteristics that define the state of a thermodynamic
system. They are essential for describing the system's condition and predicting its behavior under various conditions.

Classification of Thermodynamic Properties:

• Intensive Properties:

o Properties that do not depend on the amount of substance present.

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 o Examples: Temperature (T), Pressure (P), Density (ρ), Refractive Index, Viscosity.
• Extensive Properties:

o Properties that depend on the system's size or the amount of material present.
o Examples: Mass (m), Volume (V), Internal Energy (U), Enthalpy (H), Entropy (S).

Specific Properties:
o Extensive properties expressed per unit mass, rendering them intensive.
o Examples: Specific Volume (v = V/m), Specific Enthalpy (h = H/m), Specific Entropy (s = S/m).

Thermodynamic and Non-Thermodynamic Properties:

The thermodynamic properties are those that influence the energy and equilibrium states of a system. In
contrast, non-thermodynamic properties do not affect the system's thermodynamic behavior.

Aspect Thermodynamic Properties Non-Thermodynamic Properties

Definition Measurable characteristics that Attributes that do not influence the
define a system's thermodynamic system's energy interactions or
state. equilibrium.
Dependence on Directly related to the system's energy Unrelated to the system's energy or
System State and phase. phase.
Examples Temperature, Pressure, Volume, Color, Shape, Texture, Odor.
Enthalpy, Entropy.

Thermodynamic State:
A thermodynamic state refers to the specific condition of a
system at a given time, fully described by its properties, such
as temperature, pressure, volume, and composition. These
properties are known as state variables or state parameters.
([Link])
State Variables:
State variables are measurable properties that define the state
of a system. They are categorized as:
• Intensive Variables: Independent of the system's size or mass (e.g., temperature, pressure).

• Extensive Variables: Dependent on the system's size or mass (e.g., volume, internal energy).

SPECIAL CASE: The relationship between these variables is often expressed through an equation of state,
such as the ideal gas law:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
where 𝑃 is pressure, 𝑉 is volume, 𝑛 is the number of moles, 𝑅 is the gas constant, and 𝑇 is temperature.
{Please note that thermodynamics is more than equation of state}

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Thermodynamic Diagrams:
Thermodynamic diagrams are graphical representations that depict the relationships between different
thermodynamic variables of a system. They serve as essential tools for visualizing and analyzing the
changes in state and energy interactions within thermodynamic processes.
Applications of Thermodynamic Diagrams:
Thermodynamic diagrams are utilized across various fields to:
• Analyze energy efficiency in engines and turbines.
• Design and optimize refrigeration and air conditioning systems.
• Understand phase behavior in chemical processes.
• Evaluate respiratory mechanics in medical diagnostics.

Thermodynamic Equilibrium:
Thermodynamic equilibrium is a state in which a system's macroscopic properties (temperature,
pressure, and chemical composition) remain constant over time. This occurs when there are no driving
forces for heat, pressure, or chemical changes.
Types of Equilibrium:
• Thermal Equilibrium:

o No temperature differences exist within the system.

o Example: Two objects in contact reach the same temperature over time.
• Mechanical Equilibrium:

o No unbalanced forces or pressure gradients exist.

o Example: A balloon that maintains its shape with balanced internal and external pressures.
• Phase Equilibrium:

o Multiple phases (solid, liquid, gas) coexist with no net phase change.
o Example: Water and ice in a sealed container at 0°C.
• Chemical Equilibrium:

o No net chemical reaction occurs as forward and reverse reaction rates balance.
o Example: In a closed reaction vessel, the concentration of reactants and products remains
constant.

Conditions for Thermodynamic Equilibrium:

A system must meet all equilibrium conditions simultaneously to be in complete thermodynamic
equilibrium:
• Uniform temperature throughout the system (thermal equilibrium).
• No unbalanced pressure forces (mechanical equilibrium).
• No net phase change (phase equilibrium).
• Stable chemical composition with no ongoing reactions (chemical equilibrium).

Quasi-equilibrium process
A quasi-equilibrium process is a thermodynamic process that occurs slowly enough so that the system
always remains infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state.
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Characteristics:
• The system remains in thermodynamic equilibrium throughout the process.
• Changes in properties (e.g., pressure, temperature, volume) occur slowly.
• The process is reversible in an ideal case (though real processes always have some irreversibility).
• It is often used as an approximation for real processes to simplify calculations.

Thermodynamic Path:
A path in thermodynamics refers to the sequence of intermediate states a system passes through when
moving from one equilibrium state to another.

Thermodynamic Process:
A thermodynamic process is the manner in which a system changes from one equilibrium state to
another due to variations in its properties such as pressure, volume, temperature, or energy.
Mathematically, a process can be described by a relationship between state variables such as:
𝑃(𝑉) or 𝑇(𝑆)

where 𝑃, 𝑉, 𝑇, and 𝑆 represent pressure, volume, temperature, and entropy, respectively.

Change of Path Between States:
If a system moves from State A to State B, the path determines how much work and heat transfer occur.
Some paths may be reversible, while others involve losses due to friction, turbulence, or dissipation.
Types of Thermodynamic Processes:
• Isothermal Process (𝑇 = constant):

o Heat transfer occurs but internal energy remains constant.

o Example: Slow compression of gas in a heat bath.
• Adiabatic Process (𝑄 = 0):

o No heat transfer; work done changes internal energy.

o Example: Expansion of air in a bicycle pump.
• Isobaric Process (𝑃 = constant):

o Heat transfer causes volume change.

o Example: Heating air in a piston-cylinder with a movable piston.
• Isochoric Process (𝑉 = constant):

o No work is done, only heat transfer occurs.

o Example: Heating a sealed gas container.

Thermodynamic Cycle
A thermodynamic cycle consists of a series of processes where a working fluid undergoes changes in
properties and returns to its original state.
Difference Between Thermodynamic and Mechanical Cycles
Aspect Thermodynamic Cycle Mechanical Cycle
Energy type Involves heat and work conversion Deals with motion and force
Example Rankine Piston movement in an engine
Governing laws Laws of thermodynamics Newton’s laws of motion

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 Aspect Thermodynamic Cycle Mechanical Cycle
Energy transfer medium Working fluid (gas, vapor) Mechanical linkages (shafts, gears)

Role of Properties and States in Declaring a Cycle

• Thermodynamic State: A point defined by properties (temperature, pressure, volume, etc.).
• Path: The process sequence leading from one state to another.
• Cycle Condition: The system must return to its original state after completing the series of processes.

State Postulate
The state postulate states that: "The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by
two independent intensive properties."
Explanation of Terms:
• Simple Compressible System: A system where electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion, and surface
tension effects are negligible.
• Independent Properties: A property is independent if changing one does not automatically change the
other.
• Intensive Properties: Properties that do not depend on the system's size (e.g., temperature, pressure).
• Extensive Properties: Properties that depend on the system’s size (e.g., volume, mass).

Mathematical Representation of the State Postulate

If we denote state variables as:
𝑓(𝑃, 𝑉, 𝑇) = 0

Then, for a simple compressible system:

State = 𝑓(𝑇, 𝑃) (or any two independent intensive properties)

where:
• 𝑇 = Temperature
• 𝑃 = Pressure

Application of the State Postulate:

• If you know pressure and specific volume → You can find temperature, enthalpy, and entropy from
thermodynamic tables.
• If you know temperature and pressure → You can determine if the substance is a compressed liquid,
saturated mixture [does not represent one state more details in module 2], or superheated vapor.

Continuum:

The continuum hypothesis states that:

"A substance is treated as a continuous distribution of matter, ignoring its molecular structure, as long
as properties vary smoothly."
Mathematically, this means that properties such as density (𝜌), pressure (P), and temperature (T) are
continuous functions of position and time:
𝜌 = 𝜌(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)

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Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force per unit area exerted by a substance (solid, liquid, or gas) on a surface:
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
where:
• 𝑃 = Pressure (Pa or N/m²)
• 𝐹 = Force (N)
• 𝐴 = Area (m²)

Units of Pressure
Pressure is measured in different units:
• Pascal (Pa): The SI unit, 1 Pa = 1 N/m².
• Bar: 1 bar = 105 Pa.
• Atmosphere (atm): 1 atm = 101.3 kPa.
• Torr (mmHg): 1 atm = 760 mmHg.

Types of Pressure
• Absolute Pressure (𝑃abs )
o Measured relative to a perfect vacuum
(zero pressure).
o Used in thermodynamic calculations.
• Gauge Pressure (𝑃gauge )
o Measured relative to atmospheric
pressure.
o Most pressure readings (e.g., tire
pressure) are gauge pressures.
• Atmospheric Pressure (𝑃atm )
o The pressure exerted by the weight of
the air above us.
o At sea level: 𝑃atm = 101.3 kPa.
• Vacuum Pressure (𝑃vac )
o Pressure lower than atmospheric
pressure (negative gauge pressure).

Relationship Between Absolute and Gauge Pressure:

𝑃abs = 𝑃gauge + 𝑃atm

Measuring Pressure
• Barometer: Measures atmospheric pressure using a column of liquid (typically mercury).
• Manometer: Measures pressure difference between a system and the atmosphere.
• Bourdon Gauge: Commonly used in industry to measure high pressures in tanks and pipelines.

Hydrostatic Pressure in a Single Fluid

For a liquid column of height ℎ and density 𝜌, the pressure at the bottom is given by:
𝑃 = 𝑃atm + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
where:
• 𝑃atm = atmospheric pressure
• 𝜌 = density of the fluid
• 𝑔 = acceleration due to gravity
• ℎ = height of the fluid column

Pressure Balance in a Multi-Fluid Manometer

A multi-fluid manometer contains different immiscible liquids, each contributing a specific pressure.

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For a system containing fluids with densities 𝜌1 , 𝜌2 , 𝜌3 , . .. and heights ℎ1 , ℎ2 , ℎ3 , . .., the total pressure at a
reference point can be calculated using:
𝑃𝐴 + 𝜌1 𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌2 𝑔ℎ2 − 𝜌3 𝑔ℎ3 = 𝑃𝐵
• Fluids above the reference point (rising side): Add pressure.
• Fluids below the reference point (falling side): Subtract pressure.

General Pressure Equation for a Fluid

For a fluid where density is not constant but varies with depth 𝑦, the pressure change is given by the hydrostatic
equilibrium equation:
𝑑𝑃 = −𝜌(𝑦)𝑔𝑑𝑦
where:
• The coordinate system points positive y up.
• 𝑃 = pressure,
• 𝜌(𝑦) = density as a function of depth,
• 𝑔 = gravitational acceleration,
• 𝑑𝑦 = small depth change.

Solving for pressure at a depth

To find pressure at a depth ℎ:
(Note in this equation h) is measured down from the surface.
𝒉
𝑷 = 𝑷𝟎 + ∫ 𝝆 (𝒚)𝒈 𝒅𝒚
𝟎
where 𝑃0 is the reference pressure (often atmospheric pressure at the surface).

Special Cases
1. Constant Density (𝜌 = constant)
𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ
(Simplifies to the standard hydrostatic pressure formula.)
2. Linearly Varying Density (𝜌(𝑦) = 𝜌0 + 𝑘𝑦)

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 ℎ
𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝑔 ∫ (𝜌0 + 𝑘𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
0
𝑘ℎ2
𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝑔 [𝜌0 ℎ + ]
2
3. Exponentially Varying Density (𝜌(𝑦) = 𝜌0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑦 )
ℎ
𝑃 = 𝑃0 + 𝑔 ∫ 𝜌0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑦 𝑑𝑦
0
𝑔𝜌0
𝑃 = 𝑃0 + (1 − 𝑒 −𝑘ℎ )
𝑘

Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules in a substance.
• It determines the direction of heat transfer (from hot to cold).
• It is measured in units such as Kelvin (K), Celsius (°C), and Fahrenheit (°F).

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that:
"If two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with a third
body, then they are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other."
This law allows us to use thermometers to measure temperature
consistently.

Measuring Temperature
• Thermometers – Use thermal expansion of liquids
(mercury, alcohol).
• Thermocouples – Use the voltage difference between two
metals to measure temperature.
• Infrared Sensors – Measure the infrared radiation emitted by an object.

Scales for temperature measurement

Two-Point Temperature Scales
A two-point scale is a temperature scale based on two fixed reference temperatures, often defined using water’s
freezing and boiling points.
Celsius Scale (°C)
• Defined by:
o 0°C: Freezing point of water
o 100°C: Boiling point of water
• Linear Relation with Kelvin:
𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273.15
Fahrenheit Scale (°F)
• Defined by:
o 32°F: Freezing point of water
o 212°F: Boiling point of water
• Conversion from Celsius to Fahrenheit:
9
𝑇𝐹 = 𝑇𝐶 + 32
5

Absolute Temperature Scales

Absolute temperature scales are based on fundamental physical limits, rather than reference points from
substances like water.

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Kelvin Scale (K)
• Defined by:
o 0 K (absolute zero): The point where all molecular motion stops.
o 273.15 K: Freezing point of water.
o 373.15 K: Boiling point of water.
• Formula for conversion:
𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273.15
Rankine Scale (°R)
• Used mainly in thermodynamics and aerospace applications.
• Related to Fahrenheit:
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑇𝐹 + 459.67
• Absolute zero is 0°R.
Temperature Scales
Freezing Point of
Scale Water Boiling Point of Water Absolute Zero
Celsius (°C) 0°C 100°C -273.15°C
Fahrenheit (°F) 32°F 212°F -459.67°F
Kelvin (K) 273.15 K 373.15 K 0K
Rankine (°R) 491.67°R 671.67°R 0°R
Key Conversions:
𝑇(𝐾) = 𝑇(∘ 𝐶) + 273.15
9
𝑇(∘ 𝐹) = 𝑇(∘ 𝐶) + 32
5
𝑇(∘ 𝑅) = 𝑇(𝐾) × 1.8

Energy in Thermodynamics
◼ Energy is the ability to perform work or transfer heat.
◼ Energy is the ability to change the state of a thermodynamic system.
◼ [Weak definition]: Energy is an ability to do work.

In thermodynamics, energy is broadly classified into:

Macroscopic Energy – Energy associated with motion or position of the system as a whole.
Microscopic Energy – Energy related to molecular structure and activity inside the system.

Macroscopic Forms of Energy

Macroscopic energy is energy that depends on the external motion or position of the system.
Components of Macroscopic Energy:
1. Kinetic Energy (𝐾𝐸) – Energy due to the motion of the system.
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
o Origin: Comes from the velocity of the object.
o Example: A moving car, a flowing river, or steam moving in a pipeline.
2. Potential Energy (𝑃𝐸) – Energy due to the position of the system in a gravitational or other force field.
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝑧
o Origin: Comes from height or separation in a force field.
o Example: Water stored in a dam, a compressed spring.
3. Flow Energy (𝑃𝑉) – Energy required to maintain flow in open systems.
o Origin: Work done to push fluid through a system.
o Example: Airflow in a compressor, steam entering a turbine.

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Microscopic Forms of Energy
Microscopic energy is the sum of all individual molecular energies in a system. This energy is associated with
temperature, phase, and molecular interactions.
Components of Microscopic Energy (Internal Energy, 𝑈):
Microscopic energy is often referred to as internal energy (𝑈), consisting of:
• Sensible Energy – Due to molecular motion (kinetic energy of
molecules).
o Origin: Higher temperature → Faster molecular movement
→ More sensible energy.
o Example: Heat stored in hot air or water.
• Latent Energy – Energy associated with phase change (solid,
liquid, gas).
o Origin: Breaking/forming intermolecular bonds during
phase changes.
o Example: Energy absorbed when ice melts into water.
• Chemical Energy – Energy stored in chemical bonds of molecules.
o Origin: Electrons in atoms store energy.
o Example: Energy released in burning fuel or digesting food.
• Nuclear Energy – Energy stored in the nucleus of atoms.
o Origin: Comes from strong nuclear forces.
o Example: Energy released in nuclear reactions (fission,
fusion).

Total Internal Energy:

𝑈𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 + 𝑈𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑈 = 𝑈sensible + 𝑈latent + 𝑈chemical + 𝑈nuclear

Total Energy:
𝑬 = 𝑼 + 𝑲𝑬 + 𝑷𝑬 + 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

𝚫𝑬 = 𝚫𝑼 + 𝚫𝑲𝑬 + 𝚫𝑷𝑬 + 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

The forms of energy already discussed, which constitute the total energy of a system, can be contained or stored in
a system, and thus can be viewed as the static forms of energy. The forms of energy not stored in a system can be
viewed as dynamic forms of energy or as energy interactions. The dynamic forms of energy are recognized at the
system boundary as they cross it, and they represent the energy gained or lost by a system during a process. The
only two forms of energy interactions associated with a closed system are heat transfer and work.

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