1154 CHAPTER 16 Vector Calculus

16.4 Green’s Theorem

Green’s Theorem gives the relationship between a line integral around a simple closed
curve and a double integral over the plane region bounded by the curve.

y ■ Green’s Theorem
C
Let C be a simple closed curve and let D be the region bounded by C, as in Figure 1. (We
assume that D consists of all points inside C as well as all points on C.) In stating Green’s
D
Theorem we use the convention that the positive orientation of a simple closed curve C
refers to a single counterclockwise traversal of C. Thus if C is given by the vector func-
tion rstd, a < t < b, then the region D is always on the left as the point rstd traverses C.
0 x (See Figure 2.)
y y
FIGURE 1
C

D D

C
0 x 0 x

FIGURE 2 (a) Positive orientation (b) Negative orientation

Green’s Theorem Let C be a positively oriented, piecewise-smooth, simple

closed curve in the plane and let D be the region bounded by C. If P and Q have
continuous partial derivatives on an open region that contains D, then
Recall that the left side of this
equation is another way of writing
yC F  dr, where F − P i 1 Q j.
yC
P dx 1 Q dy − yy
D
S −Q
−x
2
−P
−y
D dA

NOTE The notation

y

C
P dx 1 Q dy     or     gC P dx 1 Q dy

is sometimes used to indicate that the line integral is calculated using the positive orien-
tation of the closed curve C. Another notation for the positively oriented boundary curve
of D is −D, so the equation in Green’s Theorem can be written as

1 yy
D
S −Q
−x
2
−P
−y
D dA − y P dx 1 Q dy
−D

Green’s Theorem should be regarded as the counterpart of the Fundamental Theorem

of Calculus for double integrals. Compare Equation 1 with the statement of the Funda­
mental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, in the following equation:

y
b
F9sxd dx − Fsbd 2 Fsad
a

In both cases there is an integral involving derivatives (F9, −Qy−x, and −Py−y) on the left
side of the equation. And in both cases the right side involves the values of the original

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 SECTION 16.4  Green’s Theorem 1155

functions (F, Q, and P) only on the boundary of the domain. (In the one-dimensional
George Green
case, the domain is an interval fa, bg whose boundary consists of just two points, a and b.)
Green’s Theorem is named after the
Green’s Theorem is not easy to prove in general, but we can give a proof for the spe-
self-taught English scientist George
Green (1793–1841). He worked full- cial case where the region is both type I and type II (see Section 15.2). Let’s call such
time in his father’s bakery from the regions simple regions.
age of nine and taught himself math-
ematics from library books. In 1828 he PROOF OF GREEN’S THEOREM FOR THE CASE IN WHICH D IS A SIMPLE REGION
published privately An Essay on the
Notice that Green’s Theorem will be proved if we can show that
Application of Mathematical Analysis
to the Theories of Electricity and Mag- −P
netism, but only 100 copies were 2 y
C
P dx − 2yy
−y
dA
printed and most of those went to his D
friends. This pamphlet contained a
and
theorem that is equivalent to what we
know as Green’s Theorem, but it didn’t −Q
become widely known at that time. 3 y C
Q dy − yy
−x
dA
Finally, at age 40, Green entered D
Cambridge University as an under-
graduate but died four years after We prove Equation 2 by expressing D as a type I region:
graduation. In 1846 William Thomson
(Lord Kelvin) located a copy of Green’s
essay, realized its significan e, and
|
D − hsx, yd a < x < b, t1sxd < y < t 2sxdj

had it reprinted. Green was the first where t1 and t 2 are continuous functions. This enables us to compute the double inte-
person to try to formulate a mathe- gral on the right side of Equation 2 as follows:
matical theory of electricity and mag-
netism. His work was the basis for the −P b t sxd −P
yy dA − y y sx, yd dy dx − y fPsx, t 2sxdd 2 Psx, t1sxddg dx
2 b
subsequent electromagnetic theories 4
−y a t sxd −y 1 a
of Thomson, Stokes, Rayleigh, and D
Maxwell.
where the last step follows from the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
Now we compute the left side of Equation 2 by breaking up C as the union of the
four curves C1, C2, C3, and C4 shown in Figure 3. On C1 we take x as the parameter and
y y=g™(x)
write the parametric equations as x − x, y − t1sxd, a < x < b. Thus

y Psx, yd dx − y Psx, t1sxdd dx

b
C£
C1 a
C¢ D C™
Observe that C3 goes from right to left but 2C3 goes from left to right, so we can write
C¡ the parametric equations of 2C3 as x − x, y − t 2sxd, a < x < b. Therefore
y=g¡(x)
y Psx, yd dx − 2y Psx, yd dx − 2y Psx, t 2sxdd dx
b
0 a b x C3 2C3 a

FIGURE 3 On C2 or C4 (either of which might reduce to just a single point), x is constant, so

dx − 0 and
y Psx, yd dx − 0 − y Psx, yd dx C2 C4

Hence

y C
Psx, yd dx − y Psx, yd dx 1 y Psx, yd dx 1 y Psx, yd dx 1 y Psx, yd dx
C1 C2 C3 C4

− y Psx, t1sxdd dx 2 y Psx, t 2sxdd dx

b b

a a

Comparing this expression with the one in Equation 4, we see that

−P
y
C
Psx, yd dx − 2yy
−y
dA
D

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1156 CHAPTER 16 Vector Calculus

Equation 3 can be proved in much the same way by expressing D as a type II region
(see Exercise 34). Then, by adding Equations 2 and 3, we obtain Green’s Theorem. ■

EXAMPLE 1 Evaluate yC x 4 dx 1 xy dy, where C is the triangular curve consisting of

the line segments from s0, 0d to s1, 0d, from s1, 0d to s0, 1d, and from s0, 1d to s0, 0d.
y SOLUTION Although the given line integral could be evaluated as usual by the methods
(0, 1) y=1-x of Section 16.2, that would involve setting up three separate integrals along the three
sides of the triangle, so let’s use Green’s Theorem instead. Notice that the region D
C enclosed by C is simple and C has positive orientation (see Figure 4). If we let
Psx, yd − x 4 and Qsx, yd − xy, then we have
D

(0, 0) (1, 0) x
y C
x 4 dx 1 xy dy − yy
D
S −Q
−x
2
−P
−y
D dA − y
0
1
y
0
12x
sy 2 0d dy dx

FIGURE 4
−y f21 y g dx − 12 y s1 2 xd2 dx
1 y−12x 1
2
0 y−0 0

g
1
− 216 s1 2 xd3 0
− 16  ■

EXAMPLE 2 Evaluate yC s3y 2 e sin x d dx 1 (7x 1 sy 4 1 1 ) dy, where C is the circle
x 2 1 y 2 − 9.
SOLUTION The region D bounded by C is the disk x 2 1 y 2 < 9, so let’s change to
polar coordinates after applying Green’s Theorem:

Instead of using polar coordinates, we    y

 s3y 2 e sin x d dx 1 (7x 1 sy 4 1 1 ) dy

F G
C
could simply use the fact that D is a

yy
disk of radius 3 and write − −
− (7x 1 sy 4 1 1 ) 2 −y s3y 2 e sin x d dA
−x
yy 4 dA − 4  s3d 2
− 36 D

−y y s7 2 3d r dr d − 4 y y
D 2 3 2 3
d r dr − 36 ■
0 0 0 0

In Examples 1 and 2 we found that the double integral was easier to evaluate than the
line integral. (Try setting up the line integral in Example 2 and you’ll soon be con-
vinced!) But sometimes it’s easier to evaluate the line integral, and Green’s Theorem is
used in the reverse direction. For instance, if it is known that Psx, yd − Qsx, yd − 0 on
the curve C, then Green’s Theorem gives

yy
D
S −Q
−x
2
−P
−y
D dA − y P dx 1 Q dy − 0
C

no matter what values P and Q assume in the region D.

■ Finding Areas with Green's Theorem

Another application of the reverse direction of Green’s Theorem is in computing areas.
Since the area of D is yyD 1 dA, we wish to choose P and Q so that
−Q −P
2 −1
−x −y

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 SECTION 16.4  Green’s Theorem 1157

There are several possibilities:

Psx, yd − 0    Psx, yd − 2y    Psx, yd − 221 y
Qsx, yd − x   Qsx, yd − 0    Qsx, yd − 12 x
Then Green’s Theorem gives the following formulas for the area of D:

5 A−y
 x dy − 2y
C
 y dx −
C 2y
1
 x dy 2 y dx
C

x2 y2
EXAMPLE 3 Find the area enclosed by the ellipse 1 − 1.
a2 b2
SOLUTION The ellipse has parametric equations x − a cos t and y − b sin t, where
0 < t < 2. Using the third formula in Equation 5, we have

A − 12 y x dy 2 y dx
C

− 12 y sa cos tdsb cos td dt 2 sb sin tds2a sin td dt

2

ab
y
2
− dt − ab  ■
2 0

wheel Formula 5 can be used to explain how planimeters work. A planimeter is an inge-
pole arm nious mechanical instrument invented in the 19th century for measuring the area of a
0 10

region by tracing its boundary curve. For instance, a biologist could use one of these
pivot
3 4
5

devices to measure the surface area of a leaf or bird wing.

9 8
7
0

pole
6
7

5
2

Figure 5 shows the operation of a polar planimeter: the pole is fixed and, as the tracer
is moved along the boundary curve of the region, the wheel partly slides and partly rolls
perpendicular to the tracer arm. The planimeter measures the distance that the wheel
tracer arm rolls and this is proportional to the area of the enclosed region. The explanation as a
consequence of Formula 5 can be found in the following articles:
● R. W. Gatterman, “The planimeter as an example of Green’s Theorem” Amer. Math.
tracer Monthly, Vol. 88 (1981), pp. 701–4.
● Tanya Leise, “As the planimeter wheel turns” College Math. Journal, Vol. 38 (2007),
pp. 24–31.
FIGURE 5
A Keuffel and Esser polar planimeter
■ Extended Versions of Green’s Theorem
Although we have proved Green’s Theorem only for the case where D is simple, we can
now extend it to the case where D is a finite union of simple regions. For example, if D
C¡ is the region shown in Figure 6, then we can write D − D1 ø D2, where D1 and D2 are
D¡ D™ C™ both simple. The boundary of D1 is C1 ø C3 and the boundary of D2 is C2 ø s2C3d so,
C£ _C£ apply­ing Green’s Theorem to D1 and D2 separately, we get

FIGURE 6 y C1øC3
P dx 1 Q dy − yy
D1
S −Q
−x
2
−P
−y
D dA

yy S D
−Q −P
y C2øs2C3d
P dx 1 Q dy −
−x
2
−y
dA
D2

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1158 CHAPTER 16 Vector Calculus

C If we add these two equations, the line integrals along C3 and 2C3 cancel, so we get

y C1øC2
P dx 1 Q dy − yy
D
S −Q
−x
2
−P
−y
D dA

which is Green’s Theorem for D − D1 ø D2, since its boundary is C − C1 ø C2.

The same sort of argument allows us to establish Green’s Theorem for any finite union
of nonoverlapping simple regions (see Figure 7).
FIGURE 7
EXAMPLE 4 Evaluate yC y 2 dx 1 3xy dy, where C is the boundary of the semiannular
region D in the upper half-plane between the circles x 2 1 y 2 − 1 and x 2 1 y 2 − 4.
y SOLUTION Notice that although D is not simple, the y-axis divides it into two simple
≈+¥=4 regions (see Figure 8). In polar coordinates we can write

C D − hsr, d 1 < r < 2, 0 <  < j

|
D
Therefore Green’s Theorem gives

0
≈+¥=1
x y

C
y 2 dx 1 3xy dy − yy
D
F −
−x
s3xyd 2
−
−y
sy 2 d dA G
FIGURE 8
− yy y dA − y y
 2
sr sin d r dr d
0 1
D

− y sin  d y f g f31 r g
 2  2
r 2 dr − 2cos  0
3
1
− 14
3 ■
0 1

Green’s Theorem can be extended to apply to regions with holes, that is, regions that
are not simply-connected. Observe that the boundary C of the region D in Fig­ure 9 con-
C™ sists of two simple closed curves C1 and C2. We assume that these boundary curves are
oriented so that the region D is always on the left as the curve C is traversed. Thus the
D positive direction is counterclockwise for the outer curve C1 but clockwise for the inner
C¡ curve C2. If we divide D into two regions D9 and D 0 by means of the lines shown in
FIGURE 9 Figure 10 and then apply Green’s Theorem to each of D9 and D 0, we get

Dª
yy
D
S −Q
−x
2
−P
−y
D dA − yy
D9
S −Q
−x
2
−P
−y
D dA 1 yy
D0
S −Q
−x
2
−P
−y
D dA

−y P dx 1 Q dy 1 y P dx 1 Q dy
Dªª −D9 −D0

Since the line integrals along the common boundary lines are in opposite directions, they
FIGURE 10 cancel and we get

yy
D
S −Q
−x
2
−P
−y
D dA − y P dx 1 Q dy 1 y P dx 1 Q dy − y P dx 1 Q dy
C1 C2 C

which is Green’s Theorem for the region D.

EXAMPLE 5 If Fsx, yd − s2y i 1 x jdysx 2 1 y 2 d, show that yC F  dr − 2 for every

positively oriented simple closed path that encloses the origin.
SOLUTION Since C is an arbitrary closed path that encloses the origin, it’s difficult to
compute the given integral directly. So let’s consider a counterclockwise-oriented circle C9

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 SECTION 16.4  Green’s Theorem 1159

y with center the origin and radius a, where a is chosen to be small enough that C9 lies
C
inside C. (See Figure 11.) Let D be the region bounded by C and C9. Then its positively
oriented boundary is C ø s2C9d and so the general version of Green’s Theorem gives

S D
Cª

yy
−Q −P
D
x
y C
P dx 1 Q dy 1 y
2C9
P dx 1 Q dy −
−x
2
−y
dA
D

yy F G
y2 2 x2 y2 2 x2
FIGURE 11 − 2 2 2 dA − 0
sx 1 y d
2
sx 2 1 y 2 d 2
D

Therefore y C
P dx 1 Q dy − y P dx 1 Q dy
C9

that is, y C
F  dr − y F  dr
C9

We now easily compute this last integral using the parametrization given by
rstd − a cos t i 1 a sin t j, 0 < t < 2. Thus

y F  dr − y F  dr − y
2
Fsrstdd  r9std dt
C C9 0

s2a sin tds2a sin td 1 sa cos tdsa cos td

−y dt − y dt − 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 ■
0 a cos t 1 a sin t 0

We end this section by using Green’s Theorem to discuss a result that was stated in the
preceding section.

SKETCH OF PROOF OF THEOREM 16.3.6 We’re assuming that F − P i 1 Q j is a

vector field on an open simply-connected region D, that P and Q have continuous first-
order partial derivatives, and that
−P −Q
−      throughout D
−y −x
If C is any simple closed path in D and R is the region that C encloses, then Green’s
Theorem gives

y

C
F  dr − y
 P dx 1 Q dy −
C yy
R
S −Q
−x
2
−P
−y
D dA − yy 0 dA − 0
R

A curve that is not simple crosses itself at one or more points and can be broken up
into a number of simple curves. We have shown that the line integrals of F around these
simple curves are all 0 and, adding these integrals, we see that yC F  dr − 0 for any
closed curve C. Therefore yC F  dr is independent of path in D by Theo­rem 16.3.3. It
follows that F is a conservative vector field. ■

16.4 Exercises
1–4 Evaluate the line integral by two methods: (a) directly and 2. yC y dx 2 x dy,
(b) using Green’s Theorem. C is the circle with center the origin and radius 4
1. yC y 2 dx 1 x 2 y dy, 3. yC xy dx 1 x 2 y 3 dy,
C is the rectangle with vertices s0, 0d, s5, 0d, s5, 4d, and s0, 4d C is the triangle with vertices s0, 0d, (1, 0), and (1, 2)

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