REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Gonads—primary sex organs

 Testes in males
 Ovaries in females
 Gonads produce gametes (sex cells) and secrete hormones
 Sperm—male gametes
 Ova (eggs)—female gametes
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OVERVIEW

 Testes
 Duct system
 Epididymis
 Ductus (vas) deferens
 Urethra
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OVERVIEW

 Accessory organs
 Seminal vesicles
 Prostate
 Bulbourethral glands
 External genitalia
 Penis
 Scrotum
 Ureter
Urinary bladder
Seminal vesicle Prostatic urethra
Ampulla of Pubis
ductus deferens
Membranous urethra
Ejaculatory duct
Urogenital diaphragm
Rectum
Erectile tissue
Prostate of the penis
Bulbourethral gland
Spongy urethra
Shaft of the penis
Ductus (vas) deferens
Epididymis Glans penis
Testis Prepuce
(a)
Scrotum External urethral
orifice

Figure 16.2a
Urinary
Ureter
bladder
Prostate Ampulla
of ductus
deferens
Seminal
vesicle

Prostatic Ejaculatory
urethra duct
Orifices of Bulbourethral
prostatic ducts gland
Membranous
Ductus
urethra
deferens
Root of
penis Erectile
tissue
of penis
Epididymis
Shaft (body)
of penis Testis

Spongy
urethra
Glans penis
Prepuce
External
urethral
(b)
orifice Figure 16.2b
TESTES

 Coverings of the testes

 Tunica albuginea—capsule that surrounds each testis
 Septa—extensions of the capsule that extend into the
testis and divide it into lobules
 Spermatic cord

Blood vessels
and nerves

Seminiferous
tubule
Rete testis

Ductus (vas)
deferens
Lobule
Septum
Tunica
Epididymis albuginea

Figure 16.1
TESTES

 Each lobule contains one to four seminiferous tubules

 Tightly coiled structures
 Function as sperm-forming factories
 Empty sperm into the rete testis (first part of the duct
system)
 Sperm travels through the rete testis to the epididymis
 Interstitial cells in the seminiferous tubules produce
androgens such as testosterone
 Spermatic cord

Blood vessels
and nerves

Seminiferous
tubule
Rete testis

Ductus (vas)
deferens
Lobule
Septum
Tunica
Epididymis albuginea

Figure 16.1
DUCT SYSTEM

 Epididymis
 Ductus (vas) deferens
 Urethra
EPIDIDYMIS

 Comma-shaped, tightly coiled tube

 Found on the superior part of the testis and along the
posterior lateral side
 Functions to mature and store sperm cells (at least 20 days)
 Expels sperm with the contraction of muscles in the
epididymis walls to the vas deferens
 Spermatic cord

Blood vessels
and nerves

Seminiferous
tubule
Rete testis

Ductus (vas)
deferens
Lobule
Septum
Tunica
Epididymis albuginea

Figure 16.1
DUCTUS DEFERENS (VAS DEFERENS)

 Carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct

 Passes through the inguinal canal and over the bladder
 Moves sperm by peristalsis
 Spermatic cord—ductus deferens, blood vessels, and nerves
in a connective tissue sheath
 Spermatic cord

Blood vessels
and nerves

Seminiferous
tubule
Rete testis

Ductus (vas)
deferens
Lobule
Septum
Tunica
Epididymis albuginea

Figure 16.1
DUCTUS DEFERENS (VAS DEFERENS)

 Terminates in the ejaculatory duct which unites with the

urethra
 Expanded end of the ductus deferens is called the ampulla
 Ejaculation—smooth muscle in the walls of the ductus
deferens create peristaltic waves to squeeze sperm forward
 Vasectomy—cutting of the ductus deferens at the level of
the testes to prevent transportation of sperm (form of birth
control)
URETHRA

 Extends from the base of the urinary bladder to the

tip of the penis
 Carries both urine and sperm
 Sperm enters from the ejaculatory duct
URETHRA

 Regions of the urethra

 Prostatic urethra—surrounded by prostate
 Membranous urethra—travels from prostatic
urethra to penis
 Spongy (penile) urethra—runs the length of the
penis
Urinary
Ureter
bladder
Prostate Ampulla
of ductus
deferens
Seminal
vesicle

Prostatic Ejaculatory
urethra duct
Orifices of Bulbourethral
prostatic ducts gland
Membranous
Ductus
urethra
deferens
Root of
penis Erectile
tissue
of penis
Epididymis
Shaft (body)
of penis Testis

Spongy
urethra
Glans penis
Prepuce
External
urethral
(b)
orifice Figure 16.2b
ACCESSORY ORGANS

 Seminal vesicles
 Prostate
 Bulbourethral glands
Urinary
Ureter
bladder
Prostate Ampulla
of ductus
deferens
Seminal
vesicle

Prostatic Ejaculatory
urethra duct
Orifices of Bulbourethral
prostatic ducts gland
Membranous
Ductus
urethra
deferens
Root of
penis Erectile
tissue
of penis
Epididymis
Shaft (body)
of penis Testis

Spongy
urethra
Glans penis
Prepuce
External
urethral
(b)
orifice Figure 16.2b
SEMINAL VESICLES

 Located at the base of the bladder

 Produces a thick, yellowish secretion
(60 percent of semen)
 Fructose (sugar)
 Vitamin C
 Prostaglandins
 Other substances that nourish and activate sperm
Urinary
Ureter
bladder
Prostate Ampulla
of ductus
deferens
Seminal
vesicle

Prostatic Ejaculatory
urethra duct
Orifices of Bulbourethral
prostatic ducts gland
Membranous
Ductus
urethra
deferens
Root of
penis Erectile
tissue
of penis
Epididymis
Shaft (body)
of penis Testis

Spongy
urethra
Glans penis
Prepuce
External
urethral
(b)
orifice Figure 16.2b
PROSTATE

 Encircles the upper part of the urethra

 Secretes a milky fluid
 Helps to activate sperm
 Enters the urethra through several small ducts
 Prostatitis–inflammation of the prostate
 Prostate cancer–third most common cancer in males
 Ureter
Urinary bladder
Seminal vesicle Prostatic urethra
Ampulla of Pubis
ductus deferens
Membranous urethra
Ejaculatory duct
Urogenital diaphragm
Rectum
Erectile tissue
Prostate of the penis
Bulbourethral gland
Spongy urethra
Shaft of the penis
Ductus (vas) deferens
Epididymis Glans penis
Testis Prepuce
(a)
Scrotum External urethral
orifice

Figure 16.2a
BULBOURETHRAL GLANDS

 Pea-sized gland inferior to the prostate

 Produces a thick, clear mucus
 Cleanses the urethra of acidic urine prior to ejaculation
 Serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse
 Secreted into the penile urethra
 Ureter
Urinary bladder
Seminal vesicle Prostatic urethra
Ampulla of Pubis
ductus deferens
Membranous urethra
Ejaculatory duct
Urogenital diaphragm
Rectum
Erectile tissue
Prostate of the penis
Bulbourethral gland
Spongy urethra
Shaft of the penis
Ductus (vas) deferens
Epididymis Glans penis
Testis Prepuce
(a)
Scrotum External urethral
orifice

Figure 16.2a
SEMEN

 Mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions

 Advantages of accessory gland secretions
 Fructose provides energy for sperm cells
 Alkalinity of semen helps neutralize the acidic
environment of vagina
 Semen inhibits bacterial multiplication
 Elements of semen enhance sperm motility
EXTERNAL GENITALIA

 Scrotum
 Penis
 Ureter
Urinary bladder
Seminal vesicle Prostatic urethra
Ampulla of Pubis
ductus deferens
Membranous urethra
Ejaculatory duct
Urogenital diaphragm
Rectum
Erectile tissue
Prostate of the penis
Bulbourethral gland
Spongy urethra
Shaft of the penis
Ductus (vas) deferens
Epididymis Glans penis
Testis Prepuce
(a)
Scrotum External urethral
orifice

Figure 16.2a
EXTERNAL GENITALIA

 Scrotum
 Divided sac of skin outside the abdomen
 Maintains testes at 3°C lower than normal body
temperature to protect sperm viability
EXTERNAL GENITALIA

 Penis
 Delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract
 Regions of the penis
 Shaft
 Glans penis (enlarged tip)
 Prepuce (foreskin)
 Folded cuff of skin around proximal end
 Often removed by circumcision
 Ureter
Urinary bladder
Seminal vesicle Prostatic urethra
Ampulla of Pubis
ductus deferens
Membranous urethra
Ejaculatory duct
Urogenital diaphragm
Rectum
Erectile tissue
Prostate of the penis
Bulbourethral gland
Spongy urethra
Shaft of the penis
Ductus (vas) deferens
Epididymis Glans penis
Testis Prepuce
(a)
Scrotum External urethral
orifice

Figure 16.2a
EXTERNAL GENITALIA

 Internally there are three areas of spongy erectile tissue

around the urethra
 Erections occur when this erectile tissue fills with blood
during sexual excitement
 Spermatic cord

Blood vessels
and nerves

Seminiferous
tubule
Rete testis

Ductus (vas)
deferens
Lobule
Septum
Tunica
Epididymis albuginea

Figure 16.1
SPERMATOGENESIS

 Production of sperm cells

 Begins at puberty and continues throughout life
 Occurs in the seminiferous tubules
 Seminiferous
tubule Basement membrane

Spermatogonium Daughter cell

(stem cell) type A (remains
at basement
Mitosis membrane
Growth as a stem cell)
Daughter cell type B
Enters (moves toward tubule
prophase of lumen)
meiosis I Primary

Meiosis
spermatocyte
Meiosis I
completed
Secondary
spermatocytes
Spermatogenesis

Meiosis II

Early
spermatids
Spermiogenesis

Late
spermatids

Sperm

Lumen of
seminiferous
tubule

Figure 16.3
Seminiferous
tubule Basement membrane

Spermatogonium Daughter cell

(stem cell) type A (remains
at basement
membrane
Mitosis
as a stem cell)
Growth
Daughter cell type B
Enters (moves toward tubule
prophase of lumen)
meiosis I
Primary
Meiosis

spermatocyte
Meiosis I
completed
Secondary
spermatocytes
Meiosis II

Early
spermatids

Figure 16.3 (1 of 2)
Spermiogenesis
Late
spermatids

Sperm

Lumen of
seminiferous
tubule

Figure 16.3 (2 of 2)
SPERMATOGENESIS

 Spermatogonia (stem cells) undergo rapid mitosis to

produce more stem cells before puberty
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) modifies
spermatogonia division
 One cell produced is a stem cell, called a type A
daughter cell
 The other cell produced becomes a primary
spermatocyte, called a type B daughter cell
SPERMATOGENESIS

 Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis

 One primary spermatocyte produces four haploid
spermatids
 Spermatids—23 chromosomes (half as much material
as other body cells)
HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

 Union of a sperm (23 chromosomes) with an egg (23

chromosomes) creates a zygote
(2n or 46 chromosomes)
Figure 16.4
SPERMIOGENESIS

 Late spermatids are produced with distinct regions

 Head
 Midpiece
 Tail
 Sperm cells result after maturing of spermatids
 Spermatogenesis (entire process, including
spermiogenesis) takes 64 to 72 days
 Plasma membrane
Neck
Tail
Midpiece Head

Axial filament Distal Acrosome

of tail centriole
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Proximal centriole

(b)

Figure 16.5b
Figure 16.5a
ANATOMY OF A MATURE SPERM CELL
 The only human flagellated cell
 Head
 Contains DNA
 Acrosome—“helmet” on the nucleus, similar to a large
lysosome
 Breaks down and releases enzymes to help the sperm
penetrate an egg
 Midpiece
 Wrapped by mitochondria for ATP generation
TESTOSTERONE PRODUCTION

 The most important hormone of the testes

 Produced in interstitial cells
 During puberty, luteinizing hormone (LH) activate
the interstitial cells
 In turn, testosterone is produced
TESTOSTERONE PRODUCTION

 Functions of testosterone
 Stimulates reproductive organ development
 Underlies sex drive
 Causes secondary sex characteristics
 Deepening of voice
 Increased hair growth
 Enlargement of skeletal muscles
 Thickening of bones
 Hypothalamus 1 The hypothalamus releases
gonadotropin-releasing
1 hormone (GnRH).
GnRH
2 GnRH stimulates the
Anterior
anterior pituitary to release
pituitary
gonadotropins—FSH and LH.

3 FSH stimulates spermatogenic

cells to produce sperm.
5
2 4 LH stimulates the interstitial
cells to release testosterone,
FSH LH which serves as the final trigger
Testosterone for spermatogenesis.
3 4 Testosterone then enhances
spermatogenesis.
5
5 Rising level of testosterone
exerts feedback inhibition on the
hypothalamus and pituitary.

Testosterone Primary and secondary

sex characteristics

Seminiferous
Supporting cell
tubule in testis
FSH and
testosterone
stimulate
sperm
production

Spermatogenic
cells
Spermatogenesis

KEY:
Stimulates
Inhibits

Figure 16.6
 Hypothalamus 1 The hypothalamus releases
gonadotropin-releasing
1 hormone (GnRH).
GnRH
Anterior
pituitary

Seminiferous
Supporting cell
tubule in testis

Spermatogenic
cells
Spermatogenesis

KEY:
Stimulates
Inhibits

Figure 16.6, step 1

 Hypothalamus 1 The hypothalamus releases
gonadotropin-releasing
1 hormone (GnRH).
GnRH
2 GnRH stimulates the
Anterior
anterior pituitary to release
pituitary
gonadotropins—FSH and LH.

FSH LH

Seminiferous
Supporting cell
tubule in testis

Spermatogenic
cells
Spermatogenesis

KEY:
Stimulates
Inhibits

Figure 16.6, step 2

 Hypothalamus 1 The hypothalamus releases
gonadotropin-releasing
1 hormone (GnRH).
GnRH
2 GnRH stimulates the
Anterior
anterior pituitary to release
pituitary
gonadotropins—FSH and LH.

3 FSH stimulates spermatogenic

cells to produce sperm.

FSH LH

Seminiferous
Supporting cell
tubule in testis

Spermatogenic
cells
Spermatogenesis

KEY:
Stimulates
Inhibits

Figure 16.6, step 3

 Hypothalamus 1 The hypothalamus releases
gonadotropin-releasing
1 hormone (GnRH).
GnRH
2 GnRH stimulates the
Anterior
anterior pituitary to release
pituitary
gonadotropins—FSH and LH.

3 FSH stimulates spermatogenic

cells to produce sperm.

2 4 LH stimulates the interstitial

cells to release testosterone,
FSH LH which serves as the final trigger
for spermatogenesis.
3 4 Testosterone then enhances
spermatogenesis.

Testosterone Primary and secondary

sex characteristics

Seminiferous
Supporting cell
tubule in testis

Spermatogenic
cells
Spermatogenesis

KEY:
Stimulates
Inhibits

Figure 16.6, step 4

 Hypothalamus 1 The hypothalamus releases
gonadotropin-releasing
1 hormone (GnRH).
GnRH
2 GnRH stimulates the
Anterior
anterior pituitary to release
pituitary
gonadotropins—FSH and LH.

3 FSH stimulates spermatogenic

cells to produce sperm.
5
2 4 LH stimulates the interstitial
cells to release testosterone,
FSH LH which serves as the final trigger
Testosterone for spermatogenesis.
3 4 Testosterone then enhances
spermatogenesis.
5
5 Rising level of testosterone
exerts feedback inhibition on the
hypothalamus and pituitary.

Testosterone Primary and secondary

sex characteristics

Seminiferous
Supporting cell
tubule in testis
FSH and
testosterone
stimulate
sperm
production

Spermatogenic
cells
Spermatogenesis

KEY:
Stimulates
Inhibits

Figure 16.6, step 5

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Ovaries
 Duct System
 Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes)
 Uterus
 Vagina
 External genitalia
 Suspensory ligament
of ovary (part of broad
ligament)
Infundibulum
Uterine tube
Ovary
Fimbriae
Uterus (fundus)
Uterosacral
ligament Round ligament

Urinary bladder
Pubic symphysis
Rectum
Mons pubis
Cervix Urethra
Vagina Clitoris
Anus
Hymen
Greater vestibular gland Labium minus
Labium majus

(a)

Figure 16.8a
OVARIES

 Composed of ovarian follicles (sac-like

structures)
 Each follicle consists of
 Oocyte (immature egg)
 Follicular cells—surround the oocyte
 Growing follicles
Primary follicle
Degenerating
corpus luteum

Blood
vessels

Antrum
Corona
radiata

Mature vesicular
(Graafian) follicle

Germinal
epithelium
Corpus luteum
Developing Ruptured Ovulation Secondary oocyte
corpus luteum follicle

Figure 16.7
OVARIAN FOLLICLE STAGES

 Primary follicle—contains an immature oocyte

 Graafian (vesicular) follicle—growing follicle with a
maturing oocyte
 Ovulation—when the egg is mature, the follicle
ruptures; occurs about every 28 days
 The ruptured follicle is transformed into a corpus
luteum
SUPPORT FOR OVARIES

 Suspensory ligaments—secure ovary to lateral walls

of the pelvis
 Ovarian ligaments—attach to uterus
 Broad ligament—a fold of the peritoneum, encloses
suspensory ligament
 Suspensory
ligament of ovary
Uterine (fallopian) tube
Ovarian Fundus Lumen (cavity)
blood of uterus of uterus
vessels Ovary
Broad Infundibulum Uterine
ligament Fimbriae tube

Ovarian ligament Round ligament of uterus

Body of Endometrium
uterus Myometrium Wall of
Perimetrium uterus
Ureter
Uterine blood Cervical canal
vessels
Uterosacral
ligament
Cervix Vagina
(b)

Figure 16.8b
DUCT SYSTEM

 Uterine tubes (fallopian tubes)

 Uterus
 Vagina
UTERINE (FALLOPIAN) TUBES

 Receive the ovulated oocyte

 Provide a site for fertilization
 Attach to the uterus
 Little or no contact between ovaries and uterine
tubes
 Supported and enclosed by the broad ligament
UTERINE TUBE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
 Fimbriae
 Finger-like projections at the distal end of the uterine
tube
 Receive the oocyte from the ovary
 Cilia
 Located inside the uterine tube
 Slowly move the oocyte towards the uterus
(takes 3 to 4 days)
 Fertilization occurs inside the uterine tube since oocyte lives
about 24 hours
 Suspensory
ligament of ovary
Uterine (fallopian) tube
Ovarian Fundus Lumen (cavity)
blood of uterus of uterus
vessels Ovary
Broad Infundibulum Uterine
ligament Fimbriae tube

Ovarian ligament Round ligament of uterus

Body of Endometrium
uterus Myometrium Wall of
Perimetrium uterus
Ureter
Uterine blood Cervical canal
vessels
Uterosacral
ligament
Cervix Vagina
(b)

Figure 16.8b
UTERUS

 Located between the urinary bladder and rectum

 Hollow organ
 Functions of the uterus
 Receives a fertilized egg
 Retains the fertilized egg
 Nourishes the fertilized egg
SUPPORT FOR THE UTERUS

 Broad ligament—attached to the pelvis

 Round ligament—anchored anteriorly
 Uterosacral ligaments—anchored posteriorly
 Suspensory
ligament of ovary
Uterine (fallopian) tube
Ovarian Fundus Lumen (cavity)
blood of uterus of uterus
vessels Ovary
Broad Infundibulum Uterine
ligament Fimbriae tube

Ovarian ligament Round ligament of uterus

Body of Endometrium
uterus Myometrium Wall of
Perimetrium uterus
Ureter
Uterine blood Cervical canal
vessels
Uterosacral
ligament
Cervix Vagina
(b)

Figure 16.8b
REGIONS OF THE UTERUS

 Body—main portion
 Fundus—superior rounded region above where
uterine tube enters
 Cervix—narrow outlet that protrudes into the
vagina
WALLS OF THE UTERUS

 Endometrium
 Inner layer
 Allows for implantation of a fertilized egg
 Sloughs off if no pregnancy occurs (menses)
 Myometrium—middle layer of smooth muscle
 Perimetrium (visceral peritoneum)—outermost serous
layer of the uterus
 Suspensory
ligament of ovary
Uterine (fallopian) tube
Ovarian Fundus Lumen (cavity)
blood of uterus of uterus
vessels Ovary
Broad Infundibulum Uterine
ligament Fimbriae tube

Ovarian ligament Round ligament of uterus

Body of Endometrium
uterus Myometrium Wall of
Perimetrium uterus
Ureter
Uterine blood Cervical canal
vessels
Uterosacral
ligament
Cervix Vagina
(b)

Figure 16.8b
VAGINA

 Extends from cervix to exterior of body

 Located between bladder and rectum
 Serves as the birth canal
 Receives the penis during sexual intercourse
 Hymen—partially closes the vagina until it is
ruptured
 Suspensory
ligament of ovary
Uterine (fallopian) tube
Ovarian Fundus Lumen (cavity)
blood of uterus of uterus
vessels Ovary
Broad Infundibulum Uterine
ligament Fimbriae tube

Ovarian ligament Round ligament of uterus

Body of Endometrium
uterus Myometrium Wall of
Perimetrium uterus
Ureter
Uterine blood Cervical canal
vessels
Uterosacral
ligament
Cervix Vagina
(b)

Figure 16.8b
EXTERNAL GENITALIA (VULVA)

 Mons pubis
 Labia
 Clitoris
 Urethral orifice
 Vaginal orifice
 Greater vestibular glands
Mons pubis
Labia majora

Prepuce of
clitoris
Clitoris
Vestibule

Urethral orifice
Vaginal orifice
Orifice of greater
vestibular gland
Labia minora
Perineum
Anus
Figure 16.9
MONS PUBIS

 Fatty area overlying the pubic symphysis

 Covered with pubic hair after puberty
Mons pubis
Labia majora

Prepuce of
clitoris
Clitoris
Vestibule

Urethral orifice
Vaginal orifice
Orifice of greater
vestibular gland
Labia minora
Perineum
Anus
Figure 16.9
LABIA

 Labia—skin folds
 Labia majora
 Hair-covered skin folds
 Enclose the labia minora
 Also encloses the vestibule
 Labia minora—delicate, hair-free folds of skin
Mons pubis
Labia majora

Prepuce of
clitoris
Clitoris
Vestibule

Urethral orifice
Vaginal orifice
Orifice of greater
vestibular gland
Labia minora
Perineum
Anus
Figure 16.9
VESTIBULE AND GREATER VESTIBULAR GLANDS

 Vestibule
 Enclosed by labia majora
 Contains external openings of the urethra and vagina
 Greater vestibular glands
 One is found on each side of the vagina
 Secretes lubricant during intercourse
Mons pubis
Labia majora

Prepuce of
clitoris
Clitoris
Vestibule

Urethral orifice
Vaginal orifice
Orifice of greater
vestibular gland
Labia minora
Perineum
Anus
Figure 16.9
CLITORIS

 Contains erectile tissue

 Corresponds to the male penis
 The clitoris is similar to the penis in that it is
 Hooded by a prepuce
 Composed of sensitive erectile tissue
 Becomes swollen with blood during sexual excitement
Mons pubis
Labia majora

Prepuce of
clitoris
Clitoris
Vestibule

Urethral orifice
Vaginal orifice
Orifice of greater
vestibular gland
Labia minora
Perineum
Anus
Figure 16.9
PERINEUM

 Diamond-shaped region between the anterior ends of the

labial folds, anus posteriorly, and ischial tuberosities
laterally
Mons pubis
Labia majora

Prepuce of
clitoris
Clitoris
Vestibule

Urethral orifice
Vaginal orifice
Orifice of greater
vestibular gland
Labia minora
Perineum
Anus
Figure 16.9
OOGENESIS AND THE OVARIAN CYCLE

 The total supply of eggs are present at birth

 Ability to release eggs begins at puberty
 Reproductive ability ends at menopause
 Oocytes are matured in developing ovarian follicles
OOGENESIS AND THE OVARIAN CYCLE

 Oogonia—female stem cells found in a developing fetus

 Oogonia undergo mitosis to produce primary oocytes
 Primary oocytes are surrounded by cells that form
primary follicles in the ovary
 Oogonia no longer exist by the time of birth
OOGENESIS AND THE OVARIAN CYCLE

 Primary oocytes are inactive until puberty

 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes some primary
follicles to mature each month
 Cyclic monthly changes constitute the ovarian cycle
OOGENESIS AND THE OVARIAN CYCLE

 Meiosis starts inside maturing follicle

 Produces a secondary oocyte and the first polar body
 Follicle development to the stage of a vesicular follicle takes
about 14 days
 Ovulation of a secondary oocyte occurs with the release of
luteinizing hormone (LH)
 Secondary oocyte is released and surrounded by a corona
radiata
Oocyte

Figure 16.11
OOGENESIS AND THE OVARIAN CYCLE
 Meiosis is completed after ovulation only if sperm
penetrates
 Ovum is produced
 Two additional polar bodies are produced
 Once ovum is formed, the 23 chromosomes can be
combined with those of the sperm to form the fertilized
egg (zygote)
 If the secondary oocyte is not penetrated by a sperm, it
dies and does not complete meiosis to form an ovum
MALE AND FEMALE DIFFERENCES
 Meiosis
 Males—produces four functional sperm
 Females—produces one functional ovum and three
polar bodies
 Sex cell size and structure
 Sperm are tiny, motile, and equipped with nutrients in
seminal fluid
 Egg is large, non-motile, and has nutrient reserves to
nourish the embryo until implantation
 Meiotic Events Follicle Development
in Ovary
Before birth
2n Oogonium (stem cell)
Follicle cells
Mitosis Oocyte

2n Primary oocyte Primary

follicle
Growth

2n Primary oocyte Primary

(arrested in prophase I; follicle
present at birth)
Childhood (ovary inactive)

Monthly from
Primary
puberty to menopause
follicle
2n Primary oocyte (still
arrested in prophase I) Growing
follicle

Mature
vesicular
Meiosis I (completed by one (Graafian)
primary oocyte each month) Secondary oocyte follicle
(arrested in
First polar body n
metaphase II)
Ovulation
Sperm Ovulated
secondary
Meiosis II of polar body
oocyte
(may or may not occur) Meiosis II completed
(only if sperm
n n n n penetration occurs)
Polar bodies
(all polar bodies Second Ovum
degenerate) polar body

Figure 16.10
UTERINE (MENSTRUAL) CYCLE
 Cyclic changes of the endometrium
 Regulated by cyclic production of estrogens and
progesterone
 FSH and LH regulate the production of estrogens and
progesterone
 Both menstrual and ovarian cycles are about 28 days in
length
 Ovulation typically occurs about midway through cycle on
day 14
UTERINE (MENSTRUAL) CYCLE

 Stages of the menstrual cycle

 Menstrual phase
 Proliferative stage
 Secretory stage
UTERINE (MENSTRUAL) CYCLE

 Menstrual phase
 Days 1 to 5
 Functional layer of the endometrium is sloughed
 Bleeding occurs for 3 to 5 days
 By day 5, growing ovarian follicles are producing more
estrogen
UTERINE (MENSTRUAL) CYCLE

 Proliferative stage
 Days 6 to 14
 Regeneration of functional layer of the endometrium
 Estrogen levels rise
 Ovulation occurs in the ovary at the end of this stage
UTERINE (MENSTRUAL) CYCLE

 Secretory stage
 Days 15 to 28
 Levels of progesterone rise and increase the blood
supply to the endometrium
 Endometrium increases in size and readies for
implantation
UTERINE (MENSTRUAL) CYCLE

 Secretory stage (continued)

 If fertilization does occur
 Embryo produces a hormone that causes the corpus
luteum to continue producing its hormones
 If fertilization does NOT occur
 Corpus luteum degenerates as LH blood levels
decline
 (a) Fluctuation of gonadotropin levels:
Plasma hormone level

Fluctuating levels of pituitary

gonadotropins (FSH and LH) in the
LH blood regulate the events of the
ovarian cycle.

FSH

Figure 16.12a
 (b) Ovarian cycle: Structural changes in
the ovarian follicles during the ovarian cycle
are correlated with (d) changes in the
endometrium of the uterus during the
uterine cycle.

Primary Secondary Vesicular Ovulation Corpus Degenerating

follicle follicle follicle luteum corpus luteum

Follicular Ovulation Luteal

phase (Day 14) phase

Figure 16.12b
Plasma hormone level

(c) Fluctuation of ovarian hormone

levels: Fluctuating levels of
ovarian hormones (estrogens
and progesterone) cause the
Estrogens endometrial changes of the
uterine cycle. The high estrogen
levels are also responsible for
the LH/FSH surge in (a).
Progesterone

Figure 16.12c
 Endometrial Blood vessels (d) The three phases of the uterine cycle:
• Menstrual: Shedding of the functional
Basal layer Functional layer

glands
layer of the endometrium.
• Proliferative: Rebuilding of the
functional layer of the endometrium.
Menstrual • Secretory: Begins immediately after
flow ovulation. Enrichment of the blood
supply and glandular secretion of
nutrients prepare the endometrium to
receive an embryo.
1 5 10 15 20 25 28 Days
Menstrual Proliferative Secretory The menstrual and proliferative phases occur
phase phase phase before ovulation, and together correspond to
the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle. The
secretory phase corresponds in time to the
luteal phase of the ovarian cycle.

Figure 16.12d
 HORMONE PRODUCTION BY THE OVARIES

 Estrogens
 Produced by follicle cells
 Cause secondary sex characteristics
 Enlargement of accessory organs of the female reproductive system
 Development of breasts
 Appearance of axillary and pubic hair
 Increase in fat beneath the skin, particularly in hips and breasts
 Widening and lightening of the pelvis
 Onset of menses (menstrual cycle)
HORMONE PRODUCTION BY THE OVARIES

 Progesterone
 Produced by the corpus luteum
 Production continues until LH diminishes in the blood
 Does not contribute to the appearance of secondary sex
characteristics
 Other major effects
 Helps maintain pregnancy
 Prepare the breasts for milk production
 Growing follicles
Primary follicle
Degenerating
corpus luteum

Blood
vessels

Antrum
Corona
radiata

Mature vesicular
(Graafian) follicle

Germinal
epithelium
Corpus luteum
Developing Ruptured Ovulation Secondary oocyte
corpus luteum follicle

Figure 16.7
MAMMARY GLANDS

 Present in both sexes, but only function in females

 Modified sweat glands
 Function is to produce milk
 Stimulated by sex hormones (mostly estrogens) to
increase in size
ANATOMY OF MAMMARY GLANDS

 Areola—central pigmented area

 Nipple—protruding central area of areola
 Lobes—internal structures that radiate around nipple
 Lobules—located within each lobe and contain clusters of alveolar
glands
 Alveolar glands—produce milk when a woman is lactating (producing
milk)
 Lactiferous ducts—connect alveolar glands to nipple
 Skin (cut)

Pectoralis major muscle

Connective tissue
suspensory ligament

Adipose tissue
Lobe
Areola
Nipple
Opening of
lactiferous duct
Lactiferous sinus
Lactiferous duct
Lobule containing
alveoli

(a)
Figure 16.13a
Skin (cut) First rib

Pectoralis major muscle

Connective tissue
suspensory ligament
Adipose tissue
Lobe
Areola
Nipple
Opening of
lactiferous duct
Lactiferous sinus
Lactiferous duct
Lobule containing
alveoli
Hypodermis
(superficial fascia)
Intercostal muscles
(b)
Figure 16.13b
MAMMOGRAPHY

 X-ray examination that detects breast cancers too small

to feel
 Recommended every 2 years for women between 40 and
49 years old and yearly thereafter
 Malignancy

(a) Mammogram procedure (b) Film of normal breast (c) Film of breast with tumor

Figure 16.14a-c
INTRODUCTION TO PREGNANCY AND
DEVELOPMENT

 Pregnancy—time from fertilization until infant is born

 Conceptus—developing offspring
 Embryo—period of time from fertilization until week 8
 Fetus—week 9 until birth
 Gestation period—from date of last period until birth
(approximately 280 days)
 Embryo

Fertilization 1-week 3-week 5-week embryo

conceptus embryo (10 mm) 8-week embryo
(3 mm) (22 mm)

12-week fetus
(90 mm)

Figure 16.15
ACCOMPLISHING FERTILIZATION

 The oocyte is viable for 12 to 24 hours after ovulation

 Sperm are viable for 24 to 48 hours after ejaculation
 For fertilization to occur, sexual intercourse must occur
no more than 2 days before ovulation and no later than
24 hours after
 Sperm cells must make their way to the uterine tube for
fertilization to be possible
ACCOMPLISHING FERTILIZATION

 When sperm reach the oocyte, enzymes break down the

follicle cells of the corona radiata around the oocyte
 Once a path is cleared, sperm undergo an acrosomal
reaction (acrosomal membranes break down and enzymes
digest holes in the oocyte membrane)
 Membrane receptors on an oocyte pull in the head of the
first sperm cell to make contact
MECHANISMS OF FERTILIZATION

 The membrane of the oocyte does not permit a second

sperm head to enter
 The oocyte then undergoes its second meiotic division to
form the ovum and a polar body
 Fertilization occurs when the genetic material of a sperm
combines with that of an oocyte to form a zygote
THE ZYGOTE

 First cell of a new individual

 The result of the fusion of DNA from sperm and egg
 The zygote begins rapid mitotic cell divisions
 The zygote stage is in the uterine tube, moving toward
the uterus
CLEAVAGE

 Rapid series of mitotic divisions that begins with the

zygote and ends with the blastocyst
 Zygote begins to divide 24 hours after fertilization
 Three to 4 days after ovulation, the preembryo reaches
the uterus and floats freely for 2 to 3 days
 Late blastocyst stage—embryo implants in endometrium
(day 7 after ovulation)
(a) Zygote (b) 4-cell stage (c) Morula (d) Early blastocyst (e) Implanting
(fertilized egg) 2 days (a solid ball of Morula hollows out blastocyst
blastomeres) and fills with fluid. (Consists of a sphere
3 days 4 days of trophoblast cells
and an eccentric
cell cluster called
the inner cell mass)
Zona 7 days
pellucida
Inner
cell
Blastocyst mass
Fertilization cavity
(sperm Sperm
meets and
enters egg) Uterine tube Blastocyst
Ovary cavity
Oocyte
(egg) Trophoblast

Uterus
Ovulation
Endometrium

Cavity of
uterus

Figure 16.16
 Uterine tube
Ovary

Uterus
Ovulation
Endometrium

Cavity of
uterus

Figure 16.16, step 1

 Uterine tube
Ovary
Oocyte
(egg)

Uterus
Ovulation
Endometrium

Cavity of
uterus

Figure 16.16, step 2

(a) Zygote
(fertilized egg)

Zona
pellucida

Fertilization
(sperm Sperm
meets and
enters egg) Uterine tube
Ovary
Oocyte
(egg)

Uterus
Ovulation
Endometrium

Cavity of
uterus

Figure 16.16, step 3

(a) Zygote
(fertilized egg)

Zona
pellucida

Fertilization
(sperm Sperm
meets and
enters egg) Uterine tube
Ovary
Oocyte
(egg)

Uterus
Ovulation
Endometrium

Cavity of
uterus

Figure 16.16, step 4

(a) Zygote (b) 4-cell stage
(fertilized egg) 2 days

Zona
pellucida

Fertilization
(sperm Sperm
meets and
enters egg) Uterine tube
Ovary
Oocyte
(egg)

Uterus
Ovulation
Endometrium

Cavity of
uterus

Figure 16.16, step 5

(a) Zygote (b) 4-cell stage
(fertilized egg) 2 days

Zona
pellucida

Fertilization
(sperm Sperm
meets and
enters egg) Uterine tube
Ovary
Oocyte
(egg)

Uterus
Ovulation
Endometrium

Cavity of
uterus

Figure 16.16, step 6

(a) Zygote (b) 4-cell stage (c) Morula
(fertilized egg) 2 days (a solid ball of
blastomeres)
3 days

Zona
pellucida

Fertilization
(sperm Sperm
meets and
enters egg) Uterine tube
Ovary
Oocyte
(egg)

Uterus
Ovulation
Endometrium

Cavity of
uterus

Figure 16.16, step 7

(a) Zygote (b) 4-cell stage (c) Morula (d) Early blastocyst
(fertilized egg) 2 days (a solid ball of Morula hollows out
blastomeres) and fills with fluid.
3 days 4 days

Zona
pellucida

Blastocyst
Fertilization cavity
(sperm Sperm
meets and
enters egg) Uterine tube
Ovary
Oocyte
(egg)

Uterus
Ovulation
Endometrium

Cavity of
uterus

Figure 16.16, step 8

(a) Zygote (b) 4-cell stage (c) Morula (d) Early blastocyst (e) Implanting
(fertilized egg) 2 days (a solid ball of Morula hollows out blastocyst
blastomeres) and fills with fluid. (Consists of a sphere
3 days 4 days of trophoblast cells
and an eccentric
cell cluster called
the inner cell mass)
Zona 7 days
pellucida
Inner
cell
Blastocyst mass
Fertilization cavity
(sperm Sperm
meets and
enters egg) Uterine tube Blastocyst
Ovary cavity
Oocyte
(egg) Trophoblast

Uterus
Ovulation
Endometrium

Cavity of
uterus

Figure 16.16, step 9

EVENTS OF EMBRYONIC AND FETAL
DEVELOPMENT

 Embryo—period of time from fertilization until week 8

 Morula—16-cell stage
 Blastocyst (chorionic vesicle)—hollow, ball-like
structure containing about 100 cells
 Fetus–week 9 until birth
THE EMBRYO

 The embryo first undergoes division without growth

 The embryo enters the uterus at the
16-cell state (called a morula) about 3 days after ovulation
 The embryo floats free in the uterus temporarily
 Uterine secretions are used for nourishment
THE BLASTOCYST (CHORIONIC VESICLE)

 Ball-like circle of cells

 Begins at about the 100-cell stage
 Secretes human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) to induce
the corpus luteum to continue producing hormones
 Functional areas of the blastocyst
 Trophoblast—large fluid-filled sphere
 Inner cell mass—cluster of cells to one side
THE BLASTOCYST (CHORIONIC VESICLE)

 Primary germ layers are eventually formed

 Ectoderm—outside layer
 Mesoderm—middle layer
 Endoderm—inside layer
 The late blastocyst implants in the wall of the uterus (by
day 14)
DERIVATIVES OF GERM LAYERS
 Ectoderm
 Nervous system
 Epidermis of the skin
 Endoderm
 Mucosae
 Glands
 Mesoderm
 Everything else
 Umbilical cord
Amnion
Chorionic
Uterine villi
cavity

Chorion Ectoderm

Forming
mesoderm Embryo

Endoderm

Figure 16.17
DEVELOPMENT AFTER IMPLANTATION

 Chorionic villi (projections of the blastocyst) develop

 Cooperate with cells of the uterus to form the
placenta
 Amnion—fluid-filled sac that surrounds the embryo
 Umbilical cord
 Blood vessel-containing stalk of tissue
 Attaches the embryo to the placenta
 Umbilical cord
Amnion
Chorionic
Uterine villi
cavity

Chorion Ectoderm

Forming
mesoderm Embryo

Endoderm

Figure 16.17
Amniotic sac Umbilical cord Umbilical vein

Chorionic villi

Yolk sac

Cut edge
of chorion

Figure 16.18
FUNCTIONS OF THE PLACENTA

 Forms a barrier between mother and embryo (blood is not exchanged)

 Delivers nutrients and oxygen
 Removes waste from embryonic blood
 Becomes an endocrine organ (produces hormones) and takes over for
the corpus luteum (by end of second month) by producing
 Estrogen
 Progesterone
 Other hormones that maintain pregnancy
THE FETUS (BEGINNING OF THE NINTH WEEK)

 All organ systems are formed by the end of the eighth

week
 Activities of the fetus are growth and organ specialization
 This is a stage of tremendous growth and change in
appearance
Figure 16.19a-b
EFFECTS OF PREGNANCY ON THE MOTHER

 Pregnancy—period from conception until birth

 Anatomical changes
 Enlargement of the uterus
 Accentuated lumbar curvature (lordosis)
 Relaxation of the pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis
due to production of relaxin
Figure 16.20a-d
EFFECTS OF PREGNANCY ON THE MOTHER

 Physiological changes
 Gastrointestinal system
 Morning sickness is common due to elevated
progesterone and estrogens
 Heartburn is common because of organ crowding by
the fetus
 Constipation is caused by declining motility of the
digestive tract
EFFECTS OF PREGNANCY ON THE MOTHER

 Physiological changes (continued)

 Urinary system
 Kidneys have additional burden and produce
more urine
 The uterus compresses the bladder, causing
stress incontinence
EFFECTS OF PREGNANCY ON THE MOTHER

 Physiological changes (continued)

 Respiratory system
 Nasal mucosa becomes congested and swollen
 Vital capacity and respiratory rate increase
 Dyspnea (difficult breathing) occurs during later
stages of pregnancy
EFFECTS OF PREGNANCY ON THE MOTHER

 Physiological changes (continued)

 Cardiovascular system
 Blood volume increases by 25 to 40 percent
 Blood pressure and pulse increase
 Varicose veins are common
CHILDBIRTH (PARTURITION)

 Labor—the series of events that expel the infant

from the uterus
 Rhythmic, expulsive contractions
 Operates by the positive feedback mechanism
 False labor—Braxton Hicks contractions are weak,
irregular uterine contractions
CHILDBIRTH (PARTURITION)

 Initiation of labor
 Estrogen levels rise
 Uterine contractions begin
 The placenta releases prostaglandins
 Oxytocin is released by the pituitary
 Combination of these hormones oxytocin and
prostaglandins produces contractions
 4 Hypothalamus sends efferent
impulses to posterior pituitary,
where oxytocin is stored

5 Posterior pituitary releases

oxytocin to blood; oxytocin
targets mother’s uterine
muscle
6 Uterus responds
by contracting more
vigorously

1 Baby moves
deeper into
mother’s birth
canal

3 Afferent
impulses to
hypothalamus

2 Pressoreceptors
in cervix of uterus Positive feedback
excited mechanism continues
to cycle until
interrupted by birth of
baby
Figure 16.21
 1 Baby moves
deeper into
mother’s birth
canal

Positive feedback
mechanism continues
to cycle until
interrupted by birth of
baby
Figure 16.21, step 1
 1 Baby moves
deeper into
mother’s birth
canal

2 Pressoreceptors
in cervix of uterus Positive feedback
excited mechanism continues
to cycle until
interrupted by birth of
baby
Figure 16.21, step 2
 1 Baby moves
deeper into
mother’s birth
canal

3 Afferent
impulses to
hypothalamus

2 Pressoreceptors
in cervix of uterus Positive feedback
excited mechanism continues
to cycle until
interrupted by birth of
baby
Figure 16.21, step 3
 4 Hypothalamus sends efferent
impulses to posterior pituitary,
where oxytocin is stored

1 Baby moves
deeper into
mother’s birth
canal

3 Afferent
impulses to
hypothalamus

2 Pressoreceptors
in cervix of uterus Positive feedback
excited mechanism continues
to cycle until
interrupted by birth of
baby
Figure 16.21, step 4
 4 Hypothalamus sends efferent
impulses to posterior pituitary,
where oxytocin is stored

5 Posterior pituitary releases

oxytocin to blood; oxytocin
targets mother’s uterine
muscle

1 Baby moves
deeper into
mother’s birth
canal

3 Afferent
impulses to
hypothalamus

2 Pressoreceptors
in cervix of uterus Positive feedback
excited mechanism continues
to cycle until
interrupted by birth of
baby
Figure 16.21, step 5
 4 Hypothalamus sends efferent
impulses to posterior pituitary,
where oxytocin is stored

5 Posterior pituitary releases

oxytocin to blood; oxytocin
targets mother’s uterine
muscle
6 Uterus responds
by contracting more
vigorously

1 Baby moves
deeper into
mother’s birth
canal

3 Afferent
impulses to
hypothalamus

2 Pressoreceptors
in cervix of uterus Positive feedback
excited mechanism continues
to cycle until
interrupted by birth of
baby
Figure 16.21, step 6
STAGES OF LABOR

 Dilation
 Cervix becomes dilated
 Full dilation is 10 cm
 Uterine contractions begin and increase
 Cervix softens and effaces (thins)
 The amnion ruptures (“breaking the water”)
 Longest stage at 6 to 12 hours
 Placenta
Umbilical cord

Uterus

Cervix
Vagina
Sacrum

(a) Dilation (of cervix)

Figure 16.22a
STAGES OF LABOR

 Expulsion
 Infant passes through the cervix and vagina
 Can last as long as 2 hours, but typically is 50 minutes
in the first birth and 20 minutes in subsequent births
 Normal delivery is head first (vertex position)
 Breech presentation is buttocks-first
 Perineum

(b) Expulsion (delivery of infant)

Figure 16.22b
STAGES OF LABOR

 Placental stage
 Delivery of the placenta
 Usually accomplished within 15 minutes after birth of
infant
 Afterbirth—placenta and attached fetal membranes
 All placental fragments should be removed to avoid
postpartum bleeding
 Uterus

Placenta
(detaching)

Umbilical
cord

(c) Placental (delivery of the placenta)

Figure 16.22c
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Gender is determined at fertilization

 Males have XY sex chromosomes
 Females have XX sex chromosomes
 Gonads do not begin to form until the eighth week
 Testosterone determines whether male or female
structures will form
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Reproductive system organs do not function until puberty

 Puberty usually begins between ages 10 and 15
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Males
 Enlargement of testes and scrotum signals onset of
puberty (often around age 13)
 Females
 Budding breasts signal puberty (often around age 11)
 Menarche—first menstrual period
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Menopause—a whole year has passed without

menstruation
 Ovaries stop functioning as endocrine organs
 Childbearing ability ends
 There is a no equivalent of menopause in males, but there
is a steady decline in testosterone
A CLOSER LOOK: CONTRACEPTION

 Contraception—birth control
 Birth control pill—most-used contraceptive
 Relatively constant supply of ovarian hormones from
pill is similar to pregnancy
 Ovarian follicles do not mature, ovulation ceases,
menstrual flow is reduced
A CLOSER LOOK: CONTRACEPTION

 Morning-after pill (MAP)

 Taken within 3 days of unprotected intercourse
 Disrupts normal hormonal signals to the point that
fertilization is prevented
 Other hormonal birth control devices cause cervical
mucus to thicken
 Minepill (tablet)
 Norplant (rods placed under the skin)
A CLOSER LOOK: CONTRACEPTION

 Intrauterine device (IUD)

 Plastic or metal device inserted into uterus
 Prevents implantation of fertilized egg
 Sterilization
 Tubal ligation (females)—cut or cauterize uterine tubes
 Vasectomy (males)—cut or cauterize the ductus
deferens
A CLOSER LOOK: CONTRACEPTION

 Coitus interruptus—withdrawal of penis prior to

ejaculation
 Rhythm (fertility awareness)—avoid intercourse during
period of ovulation or fertility
 Record daily basal temperature (body temperature
rises after ovulation)
 Record changes in pattern of salivary mucus
A CLOSER LOOK: CONTRACEPTION

 Barrier methods
 Diaphragms
 Cervical caps
 Condoms
 Spermicidal foams
 Gels
 Sponges
A CLOSER LOOK: CONTRACEPTION

 Abortion—termination of pregnancy
 Miscarriage—spontaneous abortion is common and
frequently occurs before a woman knows she is pregnant
 RU486 or “abortion pill”—induces miscarriage during first
7 weeks of pregnancy
 Condom

Birth
control
pills
Diaphragm

Spermacidal
Contraceptive inserts
sponge
Contraceptive
jelly
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM