CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION

What is a Rocket Engine?

A rocket is a non-air-breathing reaction engine that generates thrust by accelerating and expelling propellant mass.

Because the oxidizer is carried onboard, rockets can operate in near-vacuum where air-breathers cannot.

Thrust is produced by accelerating hot combustion products through a convergent–divergent nozzle to high (often
supersonic) exit velocities.

This course is devoted to the rocket engine, particularly one that uses chemical fuel and an oxidizer.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.2 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF PROPULSION

Jet propulsion can be expalined mainly by the second and third laws of motion.

According to Newton’s third law of motion, we know that for every acting force, there is an equal
and opposite reacting force.

Although these forces have equal magnitude and occur in opposite directions, they never cancel
each other because these forces always act on two different objects.

Isaac Newton:
“To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction;
or, the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are
always equal, and directed to contrary parts.”
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.2 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF PROPULSION

The third law is the heart of rocketry as the action of the rocket
engine produces the forward motion of the rocket.

The fuel and oxidizer get burnt and then forcefully ejected from a
nozzle. As a result, thrust (reaction) as an equal and opposite
reaction is acted on vehicle.

What are the factors that affect acceleration of a rocket engine?

• The exhaust velocity,

• The rate at which the exhaust is ejected,
• The mass of the rocket.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.3 BRIEF HISTORY OF ROCKET ENGINES
9th century CE: Chinese alchemists discover gunpowder; by the Song dynasty it is
applied to “fire arrows” and other gunpowder weapons.

1st century CE: Hero of Alexandria describes the aeolipile, a steam reaction
device—an early demonstration of reaction thrust, though not a practical engine.

900-1000: Feng Jishen launched an early rocket using a bamboo tube filled with
gunpowder, one of the first recorded uses of solid-fuel propulsion.

Wan Hu (legend): A story of a Chinese official launching himself with rockets;

regarded as apocryphal/legendary.

1633: Lagari Hasan Çelebi, an Ottoman aviator, reportedly launched himself with
a rocket-powered vehicle in an early attempt at manned flight.

1903: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, a Russian scientist, first theorized about liquid-

fueled rocket engines, laying the foundation for modern astronautics.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.3 BRIEF HISTORY OF ROCKET ENGINES
1926: Robert H. Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket in Auburn,
Massachusetts, experimentally proving the feasibility of modern liquid
propulsion.

1957: The Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial Earth satellite,
generally regarded as the beginning of the Space Age.

1961: Yuri Gagarin, aboard Vostok 1, became the first human to orbit Earth, a
pivotal milestone in human spaceflight.

1969: NASA’s Apollo 11 mission—launched on a Saturn V—landed humans on

the Moon for the first time.

2020: SpaceX Crew Dragon (Demo-2), launched on a Falcon 9, achieved the

first crewed commercial flight to the International Space Station, opening
NASA’s Commercial Crew era.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF PROPULSIVE DEVICES
The propulsive devices can be broadly divided
into two categories: air-breathing and non-air-
breathing engines. In the case of air-breathing
engines, ambient air is used as an oxidizer for
burning fuel. In non-air-breathing engines, the
oxidizers are not taken from the atmosphere
but are rather carried onboard the vehicle.

In this course, we are mainly concerned with

chemical propulsive devices.

In those devices chemical energy resulting

from the breaking or forming of chemical
bonds is used to impart the required force for
propulsion to take place.

Other forms of energy «electrical, nuclear,

plasma, and so on» have been used to propel
rocket engines.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.4.1 Comparison of Air-Breathing and Rocket Engines
Air-Breathing Engine Rocket Engine

❖ Needs air: Uses atmospheric oxygen; cannot work in vacuum. ❖ Self-contained: Carries fuel and oxidizer; works in vacuum or
atmosphere.

❖ Altitude dependent: Less air density at high altitude → weaker combustion and
lower efficiency. ❖ Mostly independent of altitude/speed: Can produce full thrust even at
zero airspeed.

❖ Speed dependent: Thrust comes from intake airflow; generally grows with
speed. ❖ Thrust set internally: Determined by propellant mass-flow and exhaust
velocity, not air intake.

❖ Limited top speed: Inlet/compressor/combustor physics make hypersonic flight

(≈Mach 5+) difficult. ❖ Wide speed range: From standstill to hypersonic; no inherent speed
cap—limited mainly by propellant and heating.

❖ Climb limited by air: As air thins with height, available thrust and climb rate
drop. ❖ Climb improves with height: Less drag and lower ambient pressure
generally increase performance.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.5 TYPES OF ROCKET ENGINES

A) Chemical Rocket Engines

B) Non-Chemical Rocket Engines

A) Chemical Rocket Engines

(based on physical form)
a) Solid propellant
b) Liquid propellant
c) Hybrid propellant

B) Non-Chemical Rocket Engines

(based on type of energy)
a) Nuclear Rocket
b) Electrical Rocket
c) Solar Rocket
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.5.1 Chemical Rocket Engines

Chemical energy released during the burning of

fuel and oxidizer raises the temperature and
pressure of the gas which is expanded in a
nozzle to produce thrust.

Hot gases at high pressure are accelerated to

1500–4000 m/s.

Both fuel and oxidizer are being carried along

with the engine.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
[Link] Solid Propellant Rocket Engines
Major components: Case, liner/insulator, propellant grain (cast and bonded inside the
case), igniter, and a convergent–divergent nozzle; inhibitors may be added to control which
surfaces burn.

The propellant mainly consists of fuel, oxidizers, and various additives, and entirely stored
within the combustion chamber in the form of blocks of definite shape called grain.

Grain contributes to around 80% – 95% of the total mass. The performance and payload
capability are dependent on the optimal design of the grain.

The igniter initiates the combustion process on the surface of the propellant. As a result,
the propellant grains will start burning and filling the empty combustion chamber.
Subsequently, the high-temperature and high-pressure gases are expanded in the
supersonic nozzle to produce the required thrust.

Nozzles are made from, or lined with, materials that withstand extreme heat while
resisting erosion and oxidation.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
[Link] Solid Propellant Rocket Engines (SPRE)
Advantages

1. Simple Design and Development:

SPREs have fewer moving parts and a simpler design compared to liquid-fueled engines. This makes them easier and
quicker to design, develop, and test, which is a significant advantage for certain applications like missiles or small launch
vehicles.

2. Ease of Handling and Storage:

Unlike liquid propellants, which often require special storage conditions (e.g., cryogenic temperatures for some fuels),
solid propellants are more stable, easier to store, and less prone to leakage. This makes them convenient for long-term
storage and quick readiness, crucial for military uses.

3. Low Detonation Hazards:

Modern solid propellants have been engineered to minimize the risk of unintended detonation. This safety feature is
vital for both transportation and storage, reducing the dangers associated with handling the rocket.

4. High Reliability:
With fewer mechanical components (no complex fuel pumps or valves), SPREs boast higher reliability than Liquid
Propellant Rocket Engines (LPREs). With reliability rates often exceeding 99%, they are highly favored in applications
where engine failure is not an option.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
[Link] Solid Propellant Rocket Engines (SPRE)

Advantages

5. Ease of Multistaging:
SPREs are easier to stack and stage in rocket designs. Multistaging (using multiple rocket stages that ignite
sequentially) is a common practice in rocketry to achieve higher velocities. The solid propellant’s simple and compact
form allows for easier implementation of this technique.

6. Higher Combustion Pressure:

SPREs can operate at higher combustion pressures than LPREs because they aren’t limited by the mechanical strength
of feed systems (which pump liquid fuel). This generally translates into higher performance and efficiency.

7. Lower Development and Production Costs:

Because of their simpler design, SPREs are cheaper to develop and mass-produce compared to LPREs. This cost-
effectiveness makes them an attractive option for many missions, particularly in military applications or small-scale
commercial launches.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
[Link] Solid Propellant Rocket Engines (SPRE)

Disadvantages

1. Lower Specific Impulse: SPREs have a lower specific impulse compared to Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines (LPREs)
and Hybrid Propellant Rocket Engines (HPREs), meaning they are less efficient in converting propellant mass into
thrust.

2. Difficulty in Turning Off: Unlike LPREs, solid propellant engines cannot be easily shut down once ignited, which
limits control over their operation.

3. Troublesome Transport and Handling: Solid propellants can be difficult to transport and handle due to their
sensitivity to environmental conditions and the potential for damage. Cracks in the propellant grain can cause
catastrophic failure, including explosions, making the handling and integrity of the solid propellant critical.

4. Thrust Vector Control Challenges: It is challenging to implement thrust vector control and modulation in SPREs,
making them less flexible in terms of maneuverability compared to liquid engines.

5. Nozzle Design Complications: The design of the nozzle must be precise since SPREs cannot use active cooling
systems, leading to heat-related issues.

6. Throat Erosion: The high-temperature particles in the exhaust gases can erode the nozzle's throat area, degrading
performance over time.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
[Link] Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines (LPRE)
Can achieve a higher level of thrust therefore, it is preferred for large spacecraft and ballistic
missiles. The design of an LPRE is quite complex and requires specialized nozzles.

Basically consists of a propellant feed system, a combustion chamber, an igniter system, and a
nozzle. Fuel and oxidizer propellants are stored separately.

The pressurized liquid propellants are converted into spray consisting of arrays of droplets
with the help of atomizers.

The igniter is used to initiate the combustion process. As a result, the propellant will start
burning and fill up the empty thrust chamber. Subsequently, these high-temperature and
high-pressure gases are expanded in a nozzle.

These nozzles are made of high-temperature resistant materials.

Propellant feed lines have several precision valves so that rocket engine can be started and
shut off at will.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
[Link] Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines (LPRE)

Advantages

1. Reusability: LPREs can often be reused, which makes them more economical for missions that require multiple
launches, such as space exploration or satellite deployment.

2. Thrust Control: LPREs provide greater control over thrust, allowing for more precise control of the rocket during
flight. This makes them suitable for a wide variety of missions that require fine adjustments during ascent or orbital
maneuvers.

3. Higher Specific Impulse: LPREs generally have a higher specific impulse compared to solid propellant engines,
meaning they are more efficient at converting fuel into thrust, offering better performance for the same amount of
propellant.

4. Emergency Shutdown: One key advantage is the ability to terminate the engine's operation quickly in case of an
emergency, making LPREs safer and more controllable during missions.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
[Link] Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines (LPRE)

Advantages

5. Pulse Mode Capability: LPREs can be used in pulse mode, meaning they can be turned on and off multiple times
during flight, making them highly flexible in scenarios that require precise timing of thrust. The ability to vary the
propellant flow rate allows for more refined control over engine power, making LPREs versatile for different phases
of flight, from liftoff to orbital maneuvers.

6. Long-Duration Applications: LPREs are ideal for long-duration missions because their performance can be finely
controlled and sustained over time, unlike solid rockets that burn out after one continuous operation.

7. Heat Utilization: LPREs can make use of the heat lost from the combustion gases to preheat incoming propellants,
improving efficiency and reducing the amount of energy wasted during the combustion process.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
[Link] Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines (LPRE)

Disadvantages

1. Complexity: LPREs are far more complex than Solid Propellant Rocket Engines (SPREs) due to the need for pumps,
injectors, and valves to manage the flow of liquid propellant. This makes them harder to design, build, and maintain.

2. Lower Reliability: The complexity of LPREs introduces more potential points of failure, especially in components like
turbo pumps, injectors, and valves. These parts are critical for the engine's function and can malfunction, reducing
overall reliability compared to SPREs.

3. Safety Concerns: Some liquid propellants are highly volatile and require special handling and storage precautions.
For instance, cryogenic fuels (such as liquid hydrogen) or toxic propellants (such as hydrazine) pose significant safety
risks during handling, storage, and operation.

4. Longer Development Time: Due to their complexity, LPREs take much longer to design, test, and develop. The
systems involved, especially for larger, more advanced engines, require significant engineering effort and testing to
ensure they work safely and effectively.

5. Weight Issues: LPREs can become quite heavy, particularly for short-range applications, where the added
complexity and weight of the necessary fuel management systems (like pumps, tanks, and cooling systems) reduce
their efficiency and practicality.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
[Link] Hybrid Propellant Rocket Engines (HPRE)

Can use both solid and liquid types of propellants.

Most widely used propellant combination is a liquid oxidizer along with a solid
propellant.

Major components; a propellant feed system, a combustion chamber, a solid

fuel grain, an igniter system, and a nozzle.

Only the oxidizer propellant is stored under high pressure and converted into
spray consisting of arrays of droplets with the help of atomizers similar to that
of other chemical rocket engines.

Thrust is produced due to the expansion of these high temperature and high-
pressure gases in the nozzle.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
[Link] Hybrid Propellant Rocket Engines (HPRE)

Advantages

1. Reusability: HPREs can be reused, offering a cost-effective solution for missions that require multiple launches or
sustained operations, making them competitive in terms of lifecycle cost.

2. Thrust Control: HPREs provide greater control over thrust compared to solid propellant engines (SPREs). By
regulating the flow of liquid oxidizer, the thrust can be adjusted, giving the engine more flexibility during flight.

3. Lower System Cost Compared to LPRE: This cost advantage comes from factors such as lower fuel storage and
handling costs, simpler injection and pressurization systems, and reduced cooling requirements. Since only the
liquid oxidizer needs to be pressurized in a hybrid engine, there is less reliance on complex and expensive
components like turbo pumps

4. Higher Average Specific Impulse than SPRE: HPREs often have a higher average specific impulse compared to solid
propellant engines, meaning they offer better fuel efficiency and performance over the duration of a mission.

5. Better Volume Utilization: HPREs are more compact than LPREs, making better use of the available space. This
higher volume efficiency is particularly important in spacecraft where optimizing space is critical.

6. Start-Stop-Restart Capability: Similar to LPREs, HPREs have the ability to stop, restart, and adjust their operation
mid-flight. This feature makes them highly versatile for missions requiring complex maneuvers, such as orbital
insertion or multiple burns.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
[Link] Hybrid Propellant Rocket Engines (HPRE)

Disadvantages

1. Complexity Compared to LPRE: Despite being simpler than fully liquid systems in some respects, hybrid engines can
be more complex compared to liquid propellant rocket engines (LPREs) due to the challenges associated with
managing both solid and liquid phases during combustion.

2. Varying Mixture Ratio: The mixture ratio between the liquid oxidizer and solid fuel can vary during operation,
making it difficult to achieve and maintain steady-state combustion. This inconsistency can affect overall engine
performance and thrust control.

3. Underutilization of Solid Fuel: At the end of a hybrid engine’s operation, there is often a residual sliver of solid fuel
(grain) that remains unburnt, leading to underutilization of fuel and reducing the overall efficiency of the system.

4. Safety Concerns with Liquid Propellants: Some of the liquid propellants used in hybrid engines require additional
safety precautions due to their reactive or hazardous nature. This can add complexity and risk to the handling and
operation of the system.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
[Link] Hybrid Propellant Rocket Engines (HPRE)

Disadvantages

5. Longer Design and Development Time: Due to the combination of solid and liquid propellants and the associated
challenges, hybrid engines can take longer to design and develop, particularly when compared to simpler propulsion
systems.

6. Heavy for Short-Range Applications: Hybrid engines tend to be heavy, especially for short-range missions. The extra
weight from the system’s components, such as the liquid oxidizer storage and pressurization mechanisms, can
reduce their suitability for shorter or lightweight missions.

7. Unproven for Large-Scale Applications: Hybrid engines are still relatively unproven for large-scale applications.
While they have potential, they have not been widely used or tested in large, demanding missions, making them
less reliable for such purposes.
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INTRODUCTION
1.6 APPLICATIONS OF ROCKET ENGINES

Rocket engine’s applications are divided into four types;

(1) Space launch vehicle,

(2) Spacecraft,

(3) Missile,

(4) Miscellaneous.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.6.1 Space Launch Vehicle

Space launch vehicles are meant for launching satellites or certain payloads into space or into
spacecraft. Each space launch vehicle is designed for a specific mission, such as placing a satellite into
a certain orbit, a mission to the moon, or space exploration. They have several kinds of payloads,
military, civilian satellite, space exploration, commercial, tourist, and so on.

The configuration of each space launch vehicle for these applications can differ from the other. Even
for the same mission requirement, the prior experiences, available resources, and so on.

The number of stages, these can be classified as single-stage, double-stage, triple-stage, and so on.
The number of stages depends on the specific space trajectory, types of maneuvers, types of
propellant, and so on. Generally, the first stage is called the booster as it provides the initial thrust to
overcome the initial inertia of the launch vehicle. By staging launch vehicles, its payload capability
increases significantly.

In recent times, a reusable single-stage device to orbit the launch vehicle is being designed and
developed across the globe which may be adopted in the future.
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INTRODUCTION
1.6.2 Spacecraft

A spacecraft is a vehicle that is designed and developed to travel in space.

Applications; earth observation, meteorology, navigation, planetary exploration, and space

colonization.

It can be interplanetary, manned/unmanned, or trans-solar vehicle. Primary functions; orbit insertion

and orbit change maneuvers and space flight. Secondary functions; attitude control, spin control,
momentum wheel and gyro unloading, and stage separation.

To execute these functions, a spacecraft can carry a number of rocket engines. Most spacecraft use an
LPRE along with a solid rocket engine as a booster at the time of their launch. Generally, electric rocket
engines are used for both primary and secondary functions during the flight of spacecraft in the space
region as they can enable long-duration flights.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.6.3 Missile
A missile is a self-propelled guided weapon system that is propelled by a rocket engine.

A modern missile has four major components: a rocket engine, targeting, guidance, and warhead systems.

A missile can be : (1) ballistic and (2) cruise.

Ballistic Missiles Cruise Missiles

• After launch, it has no active propulsion after a certain period. * It maintains self-propulsion until the end of its flight.
• Similar to a rocket engine. * Similar to a jet engine.
• Long-range missiles exit and re-enter the atmosphere. * Entire flight occurs within the atmosphere.
• Low accuracy due to guidance limitations and environmental factors. * High accuracy due to constant movement.
• Extremely long range since it doesn't need fuel after re-entering orbit. * Short range due to continuous propulsion requirement.
• High payload capacity. * Limited payload capacity.
• Can carry multiple warheads. * Usually carries a single payload.
• Initially developed for nuclear warheads. * Developed primarily for conventional warheads.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.6.4 Other Civilian Applications

Rocket engines have been used for several other civilian applications;

For collecting weather predictions,

For research in airplanes,
In rocket-assist takeoff, and
For providing lifelines to ships in danger,
Etc.

Rockets can be used in the future for providing aid materials to inaccessible places during natural
disasters.
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Rocket Engine in Türkiye

-1957- Bandırma Füze Lise Kulübü → Füze Kültür Kulübü

-1959- Füze Kültür Kulübü → Bandırma Havacılık ve Uzay Araştırma Derneği (HUZAD)

-10 Ekim 1959-

İlk roket 40 metre yükseğe çıktıktan sonra denize çakıldı (HUZAD).
İkinci füze başarısız.
Üçüncü denemede 750 metre yüksekliğe çıktı ve uluslararası basının ilgisini çekti.

-30 Ağustos 1962-

Marmara - 1, yaklaşık 900 metreye yükseldi.

-3 Eylül 1962-
Marmara - 2 yaklaşık 15 kilometre yol aldı ve Fener Adası’na paraşütle iniş yaptı.

Marmara - 4 ise 5 bin metreyi aşan bir yüksekliğe ulaştı.

 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Rocket Engine in Türkiye

HUZAD, Amerika ve Almanya’nın ardından amatör uzay çalışmaları alanında dünya üçüncüsü oldu.
HUZAD, çeşitli projeler üzerinde çalışmaya başladı. Bunlardan bazıları, Vega, Uçan Türk, Ata - 1, Sirius
gibi yenilikçi ve önemli projelerdi.

-2017-
Roketsan’ın Uydu Fırlatma Uzay Sistemleri ve İleri Teknolojiler Araştırma Merkezi ile Patlayıcı Ham
Madde Üretim Tesisinin açılışında, 2017 yılında ilk Türk sonda roketiyle 130 km irtifaya çıkılarak uzaya
ilk adımın atıldığı açıklandı.

-2018-
DeltaV Uzay Teknolojileri firması ilk fırlatmasını Gösteri Sonda Roketi (GOSOR) ile yaptı.

Roketsan’ın sonda roketi TF03 100 km yüksekliğe kontrollü olarak çıktı. ODTÜ İVMER yapımı milli
radyasyon ölçeri sonda roketi ile fırlatarak uzayda test yaptı.
 CHAPTER I
Rocket Engine in Türkiye INTRODUCTION
-2021-
Türk savunma sanayisi tarafından geliştirilen yüksek irtifa uzun menzilli hava savunma füzesi Siper'in atış testi
başarıyla yapıldı.

Hisar orta irtifa hava savunma sisteminin envantere kabul atışı yapıldı.

TUA, DeltaV’nin hibrit roket motoru (Ay’a Sert İniş görevinde kullanılacak) testlerine ilişkin bilgilendirme yaptı.

-2022-
ROKETSAN, kara, deniz ve hava platformlarından atılabilecek, 150 kilometrenin üzerinde menzile sahip yeni nesil
seyir füzesi Çakır'ı geliştirdiğini açıkladı.

Milli Savunma Bakanlığı, milli güdümlü mermi Atmaca'nın ilk kez mobil güdümlü mermi sistemiyle karadan
denizdeki bir hedefe yapılan test atışının başarıyla yerine getirildiğini bildirdi.

Milli hava füzesi Gökdoğan'ın radar arayıcı başlıklı test atışı yapıldı.

2023: DeltaV’nin SORS sistemi 100+ km irtifayı geçti; HİS (hibrit uzay motoru) için “uzayda ilk ateşleme”
duyuruldu.