MODULE 6 PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION

LO 6.1 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

CLASSES OF ANIMAL FEEDS.

Roughages

These are feeds that are high in fibre (more than 18% crude fibre) and typically have low
energy content.

Characteristics:

• Bulky and coarse

• Essential for proper rumen function in ruminants
• Promote chewing and saliva production, aiding digestion

Types:

• Dry Roughages: hay, straw, stover

• Green Roughages: fresh grass, legume pastures (e.g., alfalfa, clover)
• Silage: fermented green fodder (e.g., maize silage, grass silage)

Examples:

• Timothy hay
• Corn stover
• Napier grass
• Lucerne (alfalfa)

2. Concentrates

These are feeds low in fibre (less than 18% crude fibre) but high in energy and/or protein.

Two Types:

• Energy Concentrates: rich in carbohydrates and fats, low in protein

o Examples: maize, barley, oats, sorghum, molasses
• Protein Concentrates: high in protein (20% or more)
o Examples: soybean meal, cottonseed meal, fish meal, groundnut cake

Characteristics:

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 • Easy to digest
• Often used to supplement roughages
• Crucial for growth, reproduction, and milk/meat production

3. Supplements (Additives)

These are feeds or feed ingredients added in small amounts to provide specific nutrients not
sufficiently found in roughages or concentrates.

Types:

• Mineral Supplements: provide calcium, phosphorus, salt, trace minerals

• Vitamin Supplements: provide vitamins A, D, E, etc.
• Non-nutritive Additives: improve feed efficiency or animal health (e.g., probiotics,
enzymes, antibiotics in some systems)

Examples:

• Salt licks
• Bone meal
• Premix vitamins and minerals

NUTRITIONAL COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL FEEDS.

1. Proteins

Proteins are essential for growth, tissue repair, enzyme production, and reproduction.

Role in Animal Nutrition:

• Build body tissues (muscles, skin, organs)

• Important for milk, egg, and wool production
• Involved in metabolic and hormonal functions

Sources:

• Animal sources: fish meal, meat meal, blood meal

• Plant sources: soybean meal, groundnut cake, cottonseed meal, legume forages

Components:

• Made up of amino acids (some are essential and must be supplied in the diet)

2. Fats (Lipids)
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Fats are concentrated sources of energy—providing over twice the energy of carbohydrates.

Role in Animal Nutrition:

• Provide energy for body processes

• Improve absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)
• Help in temperature regulation and protection of organs

Sources:

• Oilseeds (soybeans, sunflower)

• Animal fats (tallow, lard)
• Vegetable oils (cottonseed oil, palm oil)

3. Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy in most animal feeds.

Role in Animal Nutrition:

• Fuel for bodily functions, movement, and production

• Excess is stored as fat for future use

Types:

• Structural carbs (fiber): cellulose, hemicellulose – found in roughages, important

for ruminants
• Non-structural carbs (sugars, starches): found in grains like maize, sorghum

Sources:

• Grains, tubers (cassava), forages, silage

4. Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts for metabolic functions.

Categories:

• Fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, K (stored in body fat)

• Water-soluble vitamins: B-complex, C (not stored, must be supplied regularly)

Functions:

• Aids in vision, growth, reproduction (Vitamin A)

• Bone formation and calcium absorption (Vitamin D)
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 • Antioxidant function (Vitamin E)
• Blood clotting (Vitamin K)
• Energy metabolism and nervous function (B-complex)

Sources:

• Green leafy plants (Vitamin A)

• Sunlight exposure (Vitamin D)
• Grains, yeast, liver (B-complex)

5. Minerals

Minerals are inorganic elements that play structural and regulatory roles.

Categories:

• Macro-minerals: required in larger amounts

o Examples: calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K),
sodium (Na)
• Micro-minerals (trace elements): required in small amounts
o Examples: iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), selenium (Se), iodine (I)

Functions:

• Bone formation (Ca, P)

• Nerve and muscle function (Na, K, Mg)
• Oxygen transport (Fe)
• Enzyme activation and immune support (Zn, Se)

Sources:

• Salt licks
• Bone meal
• Mineral premixes
• Forages (especially legumes)

SOURCES OF NUTRIENTS REQUIRED FOR PREPARATION OF ANIMAL FEED.

Cereals – Energy Sources

Cereals are rich in carbohydrates and provide the bulk of energy in animal feeds.

Cereals are the foundation of most animal feed rations, especially for monogastric animals
like poultry and pigs. They are rich in starch, providing digestible energy.

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Key Nutrients:

• Carbohydrates (Starch)
• Some proteins (though usually low)
• Small amounts of vitamins (especially B-complex) and minerals

Common Cereal Sources:

Cereal Nutrients Provided

Maize (corn) High in energy, low in protein (~8–10%)
Sorghum Good energy, heat- and drought-tolerant
Wheat Moderate protein (11–13%), energy-rich
Barley Energy, higher fiber than maize
Oats Moderate energy, higher in fiber
Millet Energy, adapted to dry regions

Main role: Energy for body maintenance, growth, reproduction, and production (milk, eggs,
meat).

2. Legumes – Protein and Mineral Sources

Legumes are used to increase protein content and improve nitrogen balance in ruminants.

Legumes (both grains and forages) are rich in crude protein, essential for muscle building, milk
production, and general body maintenance.

Key Nutrients:

• Protein (high-quality, especially in legume seeds and meals)

• Calcium, magnesium, and some trace elements
• Vitamins (like vitamin A precursors and B-complex)
• Fiber (in legume forages)

Common Legume Sources:

Legume Feed Nutrients Provided

Soybean meal High protein (~44–48%), essential amino acids
Groundnut (peanut) cake Protein, energy, minerals
Cottonseed meal Protein, but limited use in non-ruminants
Lucerne (alfalfa) Protein-rich forage, minerals, vitamins
Cowpea vines/forage Good forage protein for ruminants
Leucaena High-protein browse (used for goats, cattle)

Main role: Growth, tissue repair, reproduction, and enzyme/hormone production.

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 3. Supplement Mixtures – Vitamins, Minerals & Additives

These are added in small quantities but are critical for balanced animal health.

Supplements are added in small amounts to complete nutritional needs not met by cereals
and legumes.

Key Nutrients:

• Vitamins (A, D, E, K, B-complex, C)

• Macro-minerals (Ca, P, Mg, Na, Cl, K)
• Micro-minerals (Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, Se, I)
• Additives: probiotics, enzymes, antioxidants

Supplement Type Nutrients Supplied

Mineral blocks / salt licks Calcium, phosphorus, salt, trace elements
Bone meal Calcium and phosphorus
Vitamin premix Vitamins A, D, E, B-complex
Dicalcium phosphate (DCP) Phosphorus and calcium
Common salt (NaCl) Sodium and chlorine
Energy, palatability, some minerals
Molasses
Probiotics/enzymes Enhance digestion and nutrient absorption

Main role: Regulate metabolism, support bone development, immune function,

reproduction, and overall health.

Summary Table: Sources by Nutrient Type

Nutrient Primary Sources

Energy Cereals (maize, sorghum, wheat), molasses, cassava
Protein Legumes (soybean meal, groundnut cake, alfalfa)
Vitamins Greens (lucerne), vitamin premixes
Minerals Salt, bone meal, mineral blocks, DCP
Fiber Forages, legume hay, oats, sunflower meal

Summary Table:

Feed Ingredient
Main Nutrients Supplied Examples
Type
Carbohydrates (energy), small
Cereals Maize, wheat, sorghum, barley
protein

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 Feed Ingredient
Main Nutrients Supplied Examples
Type
Soybean meal, groundnut cake,
Legumes Proteins, minerals, fiber
lucerne
Supplement Salt, bone meal, vitamin-mineral
Vitamins, minerals, additives
mixtures premix

Summary Table: Sources by Nutrient Type

Nutrient Primary Sources

Energy Cereals (maize, sorghum, wheat), molasses, cassava
Protein Legumes (soybean meal, groundnut cake, alfalfa)
Vitamins Greens (lucerne), vitamin premixes
Minerals Salt, bone meal, mineral blocks, DCP
Fiber Forages, legume hay, oats, sunflower meal

REQUIREMENTS NECESSARY FOR FORMULATING FEEDS

Formulating feeds for cattle requires careful consideration of their age, type (purpose), and
body weight. These factors directly affect the animal’s nutritional needs for maintenance,
growth, reproduction, and production (milk or meat).

1. Age of the Cattle

The age determines growth stage and digestive capacity, which affects the type and
proportion of feed ingredients.

Calves (0–6 months)

• High protein (18–22%) for rapid growth

• Easily digestible energy sources
• Milk replacers or whole milk, calf starter (grain-based), and good-quality hay
• Supplements: Vitamins A, D, E, and minerals for bone development

Growing Cattle (6–18 months)

• Moderate to high energy for weight gain

• Protein: 12–16%, depending on growth rate
• Balanced roughage-to-concentrate ratio
• Good mineral supply (especially Ca and P)

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 Mature Cattle (18+ months)

• Maintenance diets unless pregnant, lactating, or being fattened

• Less protein required (10–12%), moderate energy

2. Type or Purpose of Cattle

a. Dairy Cattle (Milk Production)

• High energy and protein demand, especially during lactation

• Protein: 14–18% (higher in early lactation)
• Energy-dense concentrates with grains (maize, sorghum), oilseed meals (soybean,
cottonseed)
• High calcium and phosphorus for milk production
• Feed intake increases with milk yield (1 kg concentrate per 2–2.5 liters of milk)

b. Beef Cattle (Meat Production)

• Focus on growth and fattening

• Energy-rich rations: maize, molasses, barley
• Protein: 12–14% in early growth, dropping to 10–12% in finishing phase
• High-concentrate rations in feedlots (low-fiber)

c. Breeding Cattle

• Moderate energy and protein levels for body maintenance and reproduction
• Pregnant cows need more protein (13–15%) in late gestation
• Bulls need additional energy/protein during mating season

3. Weight of the Animal

Weight helps estimate the daily feed intake and nutrient requirements. On average:

• Cattle consume 2–3% of body weight in dry matter per day

o Example: A 500 kg cow = 10–15 kg dry matter/day
• Energy and protein needs increase with weight and production level

Weight (kg) Dry Matter Intake (kg/day) Notes

150–250 4–7 Growing heifers/steers
300–400 6–10 Young adults
500+ 10–15 Adult/lactating cows

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 Other Considerations in Feed Formulation
• Feed availability and cost
• Quality of forages (silage, hay, pasture)
• Supplementation of minerals and vitamins (especially Ca, P, Cu, Zn, Se, Vitamin A
& D)
• Water access – essential and often overlooked

Example: Feeding Requirements Summary for Cattle

Category Crude Protein (%) Energy (ME MJ/kg) Notes
Calf (0–6 mo) 18–22 10–12 High-quality starter feeds
Heifer (6–18 mo) 12–16 8–10 For growth and development
Dairy Cow (lact.) 14–18 10–12 Based on milk yield
Dry Cow 10–12 8–10 Maintenance diet
Beef Fattening 12–14 10–12 High-concentrate, low-fiber

Formulating feeds for pigs requires a clear understanding of their age, type (purpose), and
body weight, since their nutritional requirements change rapidly through different stages of
growth and production. Proper feed formulation ensures efficient growth, reproduction,
and feed conversion.

1. Age of the Pig

Pigs are typically grouped into age/stage categories, each with specific nutrient needs:

a. Piglets (0–8 weeks)

• Require highly digestible feeds with high protein and energy

• Crude Protein (CP): 20–22%
• Energy: 3200–3400 kcal/kg ME
• Need milk-based or highly digestible proteins (e.g., fish meal, milk replacers,
soybean meal)
• Vitamins and minerals critical for immune development

b. Growers (8–16 weeks)

• Rapid muscle development phase

• CP: 16–18%
• Energy: 3100–3300 kcal/kg ME
• Focus on balanced amino acids, especially lysine

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 c. Finishers (16–24 weeks)

• Focus on fattening and efficient feed conversion

• CP: 14–16%
• Energy: 3200–3400 kcal/kg ME
• Reduce protein to limit cost while ensuring lean meat production

2. Type or Purpose of Pig

a. Breeding Sows (Pregnant)

• CP: 14–16%
• Moderate energy, increased fiber to prevent constipation
• Extra minerals (e.g., Ca, P) for fetal development
• Avoid overfeeding to prevent overweight sows

b. Lactating Sows

• CP: 16–18%, high energy

• Need increased feed intake to support milk production
• High lysine, calcium, and phosphorus

c. Boars (Males used for breeding)

• CP: 14–16%, moderate energy

• Avoid excessive energy to prevent obesity
• Balanced minerals (especially selenium and vitamin E) for fertility

3. Weight of the Pig

Weight helps estimate daily feed intake and nutrient requirements.

Pig Weight (kg) Stage Feed Intake (% BW) Notes

5–10 kg Piglet (starter) 4–5% Feed must be very digestible
10–30 kg Grower 3–4% Increase energy & protein intake
30–60 kg Grower 3% Maintain steady growth
60–100 kg Finisher 2.5–3% Efficient feed conversion
>100 kg Adult (sow/boar) 2–2.5% Based on reproductive stage

Nutritional Needs by Stage

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 Stage CP (%) ME (kcal/kg) Special Nutrients Needed
Piglet (0–8 wks) 20–22 3200–3400 Lysine, methionine, vitamin B12
Grower (8–16 wks) 16–18 3100–3300 Calcium, phosphorus
Finisher (16–24 wks) 14–16 3200–3400 Energy-dense feed
Pregnant Sow 14–16 2800–3000 Fiber, calcium, selenium
Lactating Sow 16–18 3200–3400 High lysine, vitamins A & D
Boar 14–16 2800–3000 Vitamin E, moderate energy

Feed Ingredients Commonly Used

Ingredient Nutrient Contribution
Maize, sorghum Energy (carbohydrates)
Soybean meal High-quality protein and amino acids (esp. lysine)
Fish meal Animal protein (high digestibility)
Wheat bran, rice bran Fiber, some protein
Mineral-vitamin premix Essential for reproduction, immunity
Limestone, DCP Calcium and phosphorus

Other Requirements in Pig Feed Formulation

Component Role
Energy (carbohydrates) From cereals (maize, wheat, cassava)
Protein Soybean meal, fish meal, groundnut cake
Amino Acids Lysine, methionine, threonine – essential for growth
Minerals Ca, P, Na, Zn, Fe, Cu – bone growth, reproduction
Vitamins A, D, E, B-complex – health, reproduction
Additives Enzymes, probiotics, antibiotics (optional)
Water Always available, clean, and fresh

Sample Nutritional Requirements Table

Crude Protein Energy (ME Lysine Calcium Phosphorus
Stage
(%) kcal/kg) (%) (%) (%)
Weaner (5–20
18–22 3000–3200 1.2–1.4 0.9 0.7
kg)
Grower (20–50
16–18 3100–3300 0.9–1.0 0.8 0.6
kg)
Finisher (50–
14–16 3200–3400 0.7–0.8 0.6 0.5
100+kg)
Sow (pregnant) 14–15 2800–3000 0.65 0.8 0.6

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 Crude Protein Energy (ME Lysine Calcium Phosphorus
Stage
(%) kcal/kg) (%) (%) (%)
Sow (lactating) 16–18 3200–3400 1.0 0.9 0.7

Formulating feeds for chickens (poultry) requires attention to the age, type (purpose), and
weight of the birds. These factors influence their nutrient needs for growth, egg production,
reproduction, and overall health.

1. Age of the Chicken

Nutrient requirements change significantly as chickens grow. Feeds are typically classified by
age stages:

Chicks (Starter Phase: 0–6 weeks)

• High protein (20–23%) to support rapid growth

• Energy: 2800–3000 kcal/kg
• Rich in vitamins and minerals for immune and skeletal development
• Crumbled or fine mash for easy consumption

Growers (6–18 weeks)

• Lower protein (16–18%) as growth slows

• Energy: 2800–2900 kcal/kg
• Balanced calcium and phosphorus for bone development
• Avoid high calcium (to prevent kidney damage in young birds)

Adults (18 weeks onward)

• Nutritional needs depend on whether they are layers or broilers

2. Type or Purpose of Chicken

a. Broilers (Meat Production)

Fast-growing birds raised for meat — require energy-dense and protein-rich diets.

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 Crude Protein Energy (ME
Broiler Stage Notes
(%) kcal/kg)
Rapid tissue and organ
Starter (0–3 wks) 21–23 3000–3200
growth
Grower (4–5 wks) 19–21 3100–3200 Continued muscle growth
Finisher (6–7 Fattening and final weight
18–20 3200–3300
wks) gain

Additives like enzymes and probiotics may be used for gut health and feed efficiency.

b. Layers (Egg Production)

Pullets begin laying around 18–20 weeks and need diets that support egg production and
shell quality.

Crude Protein Energy (ME Calcium

Layer Stage Notes
(%) kcal/kg) (%)
Grower (9–18
15–16 2800–2900 1.0 Prepares for laying
wks)
High calcium for
Laying hens 16–18 2700–2900 3.5–4.0
eggshells

Vitamin D3 is essential for calcium absorption and strong eggshell formation.

3. Weight of the Chicken

Weight determines feed intake and nutrient requirements.

Chicken Type Weight (kg) Daily Feed Intake Notes

Chicks 0.05–0.2 20–50 g Small portions, frequent feeding
Growers 0.2–1.0 60–100 g Gradual increase with age
Broilers 1.5–3.0 100–180 g Depends on age and growth speed
Layers 1.5–2.2 110–130 g Slightly more during peak laying

Additional Nutrient Requirements

Nutrient Source Role
Protein Soybean meal, fish meal Growth, egg production
Energy Maize, wheat, sorghum Body maintenance, productivity

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 Nutrient Source Role
Calcium & Phosphorus Limestone, bone meal Eggshell strength, bone health
Vitamins Premixes (A, D, E, B, K) Immunity, growth, metabolism
Amino acids Lysine, methionine Feathering, muscle, and egg mass
Enzymes/probiotics Feed additives Improve digestion and feed conversion

Example Feed Summary by Type

Type Protein (%) Energy (kcal/kg) Calcium (%) Special Additives
Starter Chick 21–23 3000–3200 1.0 Vitamins, enzymes
Grower 16–18 2800–3000 1.0 Balanced amino acids
Broiler Finisher 18–20 3200–3300 0.9 Energy-dense, fattening
Layer 16–18 2700–2900 3.5–4.0 High calcium, vitamin D3

Basic Steps in Livestock Feed Preparation:

1. Determine Nutritional Needs:

• Calculate protein, energy, and fiber requirements based on age, weight, and type of
animal.
• Consider production goals (milk, meat, wool, etc.).

2. Select Ingredients:

• Choose appropriate ingredients (roughages, concentrates, protein sources).

• Ensure adequate supply of minerals, vitamins, and water.

3. Mix and Prepare:

• Mix ingredients thoroughly to ensure uniform distribution of nutrients.

• Use Total Mixed Ration (TMR) for ruminants (cattle, sheep) to ensure complete diet
in every bite.

4. Adjust for Specific Needs:

• Modify feed composition based on production level (e.g., higher energy for lactating
cows, higher protein for growing pigs).
• Monitor feed intake and body condition regularly to ensure health and productivity.

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5. Feed Management:

• Store feeds properly to avoid spoilage.

• Ensure fresh, clean water is always available.

Example Feed Formulations for Different Livestock:

Animal Quantity per

Ingredient Purpose
Type Day
Cattle Silage (roughage) 15–20 kg Fiber for digestion and rumen health
Maize (concentrate) 3–4 kg Energy for milk production or fattening
Soybean Meal Protein for muscle growth and milk
2–3 kg
(protein) production
Mineral Mix 100 g To ensure proper bone development
Pig Maize (energy) 3–5 kg Energy for weight gain
Soybean Meal Protein for growth and muscle
2–3 kg
(protein) development
Fish Meal (protein) 500 g–1 kg High-quality protein source for growth
Energy for growth (broilers) or egg
Poultry Maize (energy) 3–4 kg
laying (layers)
Soybean Meal
2–3 kg Protein for growth or egg production
(protein)
Limestone (calcium) 50–100 g For eggshell quality in layers

The preparation of feeds according to livestock requirements involves balancing the

nutritional needs of animals with the available feed resources. Proper feed formulation
ensures optimal growth, production (milk, meat, eggs), reproduction, and overall health.
Here's a general guide based on livestock type:

1. Understand the Livestock Requirements

Different animals have different nutritional needs based on:

• Species (e.g., cattle, poultry, goats, sheep, pigs)

• Age and weight
• Purpose (e.g., growth, reproduction, milk/meat/egg production)
• Stage of production (e.g., lactating, pregnant, weaning)

Nutritional requirements generally include:

• Energy (carbohydrates and fats)

• Proteins

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 • Vitamins and minerals
• Water
• Fiber (especially for ruminants)

2. Select Suitable Feed Ingredients

Common feed components:

• Energy sources: maize, cassava, sorghum, wheat bran

• Protein sources: soybean meal, fish meal, cottonseed cake, sunflower cake,
leguminous plants
• Minerals: bone meal, limestone, salt
• Vitamins: commercial premixes, green leafy materials
• Fiber: hay, silage, crop residues (for ruminants)

3. Formulate the Feed

Use feed formulation software or manual methods to mix ingredients based on animal needs.:

Use feed formulation techniques (manually or with software) to create a balanced ration:

• Ration balancing: Ensure correct proportions of carbohydrates, proteins, fats,

minerals, vitamins, and water.
• Dry matter basis: Consider feed composition on a dry matter basis to avoid
under/overfeeding.
• Palatability and digestibility: Ensure the feed is acceptable and digestible for the
animal.

Example feed ratios

A. Dairy Cattle (Lactating)

• Maize silage – 40%

• Legume hay – 20%
• Dairy concentrate – 30%
• Mineral mix – 5%
• Salt – 1%
• Water – ad libitum

B. Broilers (Starter Feed)

• Maize – 55%
• Soybean meal – 25%
• Fish meal – 10%
• Premix (vitamins & minerals) – 5%
• Limestone – 2%

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 • Salt – 1%
• Methionine & lysine (if needed)

C. Goats/Sheep

• Pasture/grazing – base diet

• Supplement with: maize bran (30%), cottonseed cake (20%), hay (40%), salt and
minerals (10%)

4. Mixing the Feed

• Use clean equipment to avoid contamination.

• Mix dry ingredients thoroughly before adding any liquids or molasses.
• For large-scale operations, use mechanical mixers.

5. Storage and Feeding

• Store in a cool, dry, rodent-free area.

• Label feed types and dates of preparation.
• Feed according to schedule and animal appetite

6. Monitor Animal Response

• Observe feed intake, health status, weight gain, milk or egg production.
• Adjust rations as needed based on performance and seasonal changes.

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT FEEDS ON ANIMAL PERFORMANCE

The type and quality of feed given to livestock have a direct impact on their productivity,
health, and overall performance. Below are key effects of different feed types on animal
performance:

1. Growth Rate

• High-energy, protein-rich feeds (e.g., commercial concentrates, soybean meal):

o Promote faster weight gain and muscle development.
o Suitable for meat-producing animals like broilers, pigs, and beef cattle.
• Low-quality feeds (e.g., untreated crop residues or low-protein grasses):
o Result in slow or stunted growth.
o Often insufficient for young or fast-growing animals.

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2. Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR)

• Balanced rations improve FCR (less feed required per unit of weight gain).
• Unbalanced or bulky feeds (e.g., fibrous roughages without supplements):
o Lower efficiency, as more feed is needed to produce the same output.

3. Milk and Egg Production

• Dairy animals fed high-protein, mineral-rich rations:

o Produce more milk with better fat and protein content.
• Laying hens on well-formulated layer mash:
o Lay more eggs with better shell quality and size.
• Deficient diets lead to reduced yield and poor product quality.

4. Reproductive Performance

• Adequate nutrition supports:

o Regular heat cycles,
o Successful conception,
o Healthy births.
• Poor nutrition causes:
o Delayed puberty,
o Infertility,
o Increased embryonic loss or weak offspring.

5. Health and Immunity

• Feeds with essential vitamins and minerals (e.g., vitamin A, E, selenium, zinc):
o Enhance immune response,
o Reduce disease incidence.
• Nutrient-deficient feeds:
o Lead to metabolic diseases, poor coat condition, and increased mortality.

6. Behavior and Welfare

• Palatable and digestible feeds:

o Promote normal feeding behavior and reduce stress.
• Inadequate or unpalatable feeds:

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 o Can cause aggression, feed refusal, or abnormal behaviors like licking soil
(pica).

IMPORTANCE OF FFED ADDITIVES.

Feed additives play a crucial role in modern animal nutrition and livestock production. Their
importance can be summarized in the following key points:

1. Improved Growth and Performance

• Growth promoters like probiotics, enzymes, and amino acids enhance nutrient
absorption and digestion.
• Animals reach market weight faster, improving overall productivity.

2. Enhanced Feed Efficiency

• Additives such as enzymes (e.g., phytase, cellulase) help animals extract more
nutrients from feed.
• This reduces feed costs and environmental waste (like nitrogen or phosphorus
excretion).

3. Disease Prevention and Health Maintenance

• Probiotics and prebiotics support gut health and immunity.

• Organic acids and essential oils can reduce pathogen loads, lowering reliance on
antibiotics.

4. Replacement for Antibiotic Growth Promoters (AGPs)

• With increasing restrictions on AGPs, alternatives like plant extracts, yeast cultures,
and minerals help maintain health and performance without contributing to
antimicrobial resistance.

5. Improved Product Quality

• Additives like vitamins, minerals, and omega-3 fatty acids can improve meat, milk, or
egg quality.
• Antioxidants extend the shelf life of animal products by reducing lipid oxidation.

6. Stress Management

• During periods of heat stress, weaning, or transportation, additives such as

electrolytes, vitamin C, and betaines help animals maintain homeostasis and reduce
mortality.

7. Reproductive Performance

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 • Certain feed additives (like selenium, zinc, and vitamin E) enhance fertility,
conception rates, and reduce embryonic mortality.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMAL DISEASES

Classification of Livestock Diseases by Causative Agents

Causative Animals
Disease Name Notes
Agent Affected
Cattle, sheep, Caused by Bacillus anthracis,
Bacterial Anthrax
goats, pigs sudden death
Cattle, goats, Abortion, zoonotic (Brucella
Brucellosis
sheep, pigs spp.)
Cattle (mostly Clostridium chauvoei, swelling,
Black Quarter (Blackleg)
young) sudden death
Infection of the udder, milk
Mastitis Cattle, goats
quality loss
Sheep, goats, Fusobacterium, Dichelobacter,
Footrot
cattle hoof decay
Chronic disease, zoonotic
Tuberculosis Cattle, goats
(Mycobacterium bovis)
Foot and Mouth Disease Cattle, pigs, Highly contagious, vesicle
Viral
(FMD) sheep, goats formation
All warm-
Rabies Nervous signs, fatal, zoonotic
blooded animals
Respiratory and neurological
Newcastle Disease Poultry
symptoms
African Swine Fever
Pigs High mortality, no treatment
(ASF)
Nodular skin lesions, caused by
Lumpy Skin Disease Cattle
capripoxvirus
Ringworm Cattle, goats, Skin infection, zoonotic
Fungal
(Dermatophytosis) horses, humans (Trichophyton, Microsporum)
Respiratory issues, fungal
Aspergillosis Poultry
spores
Toxin from moldy feeds (e.g.
Mycotoxicosis All species
aflatoxins)
Rickets (Vitamin D Poultry, young
Deficiency Weak, deformed bones
deficiency) livestock
Milk Fever Dairy cattle
Muscle weakness, collapse
(Hypocalcemia) (post-calving)

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 Causative Animals
Disease Name Notes
Agent Affected
Vitamin E/Selenium deficiency,
White Muscle Disease Calves, lambs
muscle damage
Phosphorus deficiency,
Pica Cattle, sheep
abnormal eating
Poultry, cattle,
Protozoan Coccidiosis Bloody diarrhea, poor growth
sheep, goats
Babesiosis (Redwater) Cattle, dogs Tick-borne, red urine, fever
Trypanosomiasis Tsetse fly-borne, fever,
Cattle, horses
(Sleeping Sickness) weakness
Cattle, sheep, Ehrlichia ruminantium, tick-
Rickettsial Heartwater
goats borne, neurological signs
Tick-borne, anemia (Anaplasma
Anaplasmosis Cattle
marginale)

1. Footrot

• Causative Agents:
Fusobacterium necrophorum and Dichelobacter nodosus (Bacteria)
• Signs and Symptoms:
o Swelling and foul-smelling discharge around the hooves
o Lameness, reluctance to move
o Hoof separation or rotting
• Treatment:
o Trimming of affected hooves
o Footbaths with zinc sulfate or copper sulfate
o Antibiotics (e.g., oxytetracycline)
• Prevention and Control:
o Regular hoof trimming and foot inspections
o Dry, clean housing to reduce moisture
o Isolate infected animals
o Vaccination where available

2. Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD)

• Causative Agent:
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (Aphthovirus, family Picornaviridae)
• Signs and Symptoms:
o Fever, followed by vesicles/blisters on the mouth, feet, and teats
o Excessive salivation, lameness
o Sudden drop in milk production
• Treatment:

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 o No specific antiviral treatment
o Supportive care (fluids, antibiotics to prevent secondary infections)
• Prevention and Control:
o Strict biosecurity and quarantine measures
o Vaccination programs in endemic areas
o Movement control of animals
o Culling during outbreaks

3. Rickets (Vitamin D Deficiency)

• Causative Agent:
Nutritional deficiency of Vitamin D, calcium, or phosphorus
• Signs and Symptoms:
o Soft or deformed bones (bowed legs)
o Stunted growth
o Joint swelling and lameness in young animals
• Treatment:
o Supplementation with vitamin D, calcium, and phosphorus
o Exposure to sunlight (for natural vitamin D synthesis)
• Prevention and Control:
o Balanced diet with adequate minerals and vitamins
o Regular exposure to sunlight
o Use of vitamin-mineral premixes in feed

4. Coccidiosis

• Causative Agent:
Protozoa of the genus Eimeria (e.g., E. tenella, E. bovis)
• Signs and Symptoms:
o Diarrhea (sometimes bloody), dehydration
o Poor weight gain, weakness
o High mortality in severe cases
• Treatment:
o Anticoccidial drugs (e.g., amprolium, sulfa drugs)
o Supportive care (electrolytes, fluids)
• Prevention and Control:
o Maintain clean and dry housing
o Use of coccidiostats in feed (preventative drugs)
o Rotate pastures and reduce overcrowding

5. Heartwater

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 • Causative Agent:
Ehrlichia ruminantium (Rickettsial organism, transmitted by Amblyomma ticks)
• Signs and Symptoms:
o Sudden high fever, incoordination
o Convulsions, watery fluid around the heart and lungs (post-mortem)
o High mortality, especially in naive animals
• Treatment:
o Tetracycline antibiotics (e.g., oxytetracycline)
o Early treatment improves survival
• Prevention and Control:
o Tick control (acaricides, pasture management)
o Vaccination (where available)
o Use of resistant breeds in endemic areas

6. Ringworm (Dermatophytosis)

• Causative Agents:
Fungi such as Trichophyton verrucosum or Microsporum spp.
• Signs and Symptoms:
o Circular patches of hair loss with crusty, scaly skin
o Itching may be present
o Usually self-limiting, but contagious
• Treatment:
o Topical antifungals (e.g., iodine, miconazole)
o In severe cases, systemic antifungals
• Prevention and Control:
o Isolate infected animals
o Disinfect housing and equipment
o Avoid overcrowding and maintain hygiene

LIVESTOCK PARASITES
A parasite is an organism that lives off another organism (host) and causes it harm.

Internal parasites live inside a host organism and external parasites on the outside.

Internal parasites include liver flukes, roundworms, tapeworms, and wireworms.

External parasites include fleas, lice, mites, ticks, tampans and ringworms.

Ticks

Host animals include cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, camels and donkeys.

Anaemia due to loss of blood; listlessness and loss of condition; transmission of tick-borne
diseases such as red water and heart water; reduced production due to loss of blood; lowered
quality of hides and skins due to tick bites; body wounds that may serve as entry points for
pathogens; lowered resistance to disease attack; increased stress due to irritation and pain
caused by the bites; blood poisoning resulting in loss of appetite.

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The life cycle of ticks

There are 4 distinct stages in its life cycle: egg, larva, nymph and mature tick. Different stages of
tick attach themselves onto the host animals to suck blood before moulting into the next stage.

A one host tick completes its life cycle on one host animal. The diagram below summarises the
life cycle of a host tick.

Control of ticks

Regular dipping/ spraying of livestock with recommended acaricides mixed at right

concentrations; hand dressing livestock using pye-grease (anti-tick grease); practice proper
rotational grazing to break the life cycles of ticks; handpick from animals and destroy the ticks
by burning or crushing; burn heavily infested pastures to destroy all stages of ticks in the grazing
area; perimeter fencing of the farm to keep out other livestock/wild animals; encourage
presence of guinea fowl, tickbird and small rhinocerous bird, which prey on ticks.

Roundworms (Ascaris lumbricoides)

Host animals

Roundworms affect sheep, goats, pigs, chickens, horses and camels. They live in the intestines
of host animals where they mature and reproduce.

Effects on host animals

Stunted growth and development; reduced production in terms of milk, mohair, wool and eggs;
reduced resistance to diseases, general lack of energy/listlessness; harsh, rough coat with hair
standing up/ staring coat; diarrhea /scours, anemia, loss of appetite and coughing in severe
cases; pot-bellied stomachs and oedema condition in the jaw region; death of the young ones
due to blockage of the alimentary canal; presence of worm segments in faeces.

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The life cycle of roundworm

The following stages form the life cycle of roundworm.

Control of Roundworms

➢ Regular drenching or dosing of livestock with suitable antihelminthics drugs such as

Piperazine, Nilzan, Nilverm and Valbazen.

➢ Practice suitable rotational grazing to break the lifecycle of roundworms.

➢ Separate calves and graze them ahead of mature cattle

➢ Practice proper manure disposal where applicable to avoid re-infection.

Here is a brief identification and description of common equipment used for controlling
internal and external parasites in livestock:

1. Dip Tank

• Identification: A long, narrow concrete or metal tank filled with diluted pesticide
solution.
• Use: Livestock (especially cattle or sheep) are walked through it and completely
submerged (except the head) to kill external parasites like ticks, lice, and mites.
• Best For: Large-scale external parasite control.

2. Sprayer

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 • Identification: Hand-held or backpack pump device that sprays chemicals.
• Use: Used to apply insecticides or acaricides directly onto the animal’s skin.
• Best For: External parasites such as lice, ticks, and flies. Suitable for small herds.

3. Syringe

• Identification: A cylindrical medical instrument with a plunger used for injecting

liquids.
• Use: Delivers medications or vaccines into the body (subcutaneous, intramuscular, or
intravenous).
• Best For: Internal parasite control via injectable dewormers or medications.

4. Needles

• Identification: Sharp, hollow metal tubes attached to syringes.

• Use: Penetrate the skin to inject medications.
• Best For: Used with syringes for internal parasite medication and vaccines.

5. Dosing/Deworming Gun

• Identification: A gun-shaped tool with a calibrated dosing chamber.

• Use: Administers oral drenches (liquid dewormers) directly into the animal's mouth.
• Best For: Internal parasites like worms in cattle, sheep, and goats.

6. Spray Race

• Identification: A narrow alley fitted with nozzles that spray insecticide as animals
pass through.
• Use: Delivers a uniform application of chemicals to control external parasites.
• Best For: Ticks and flies in large herds, especially cattle.

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27
REARING FARM ANIMALS

TYPE OF HOUSING NEEDED FOR BROILERS

BROILER HOUSE:
FLOOR- concrete is desirable because it is easily cleaned and disinfected and durable. It
should be 8-10cm thick, placed on a firm base 15cm above the ground.
ROOF- roofing materials that can be used include:
- Corrugated iron sheets as they are durable, easier to keep clean and are fireproof
- Thatch as it is cheap with good insulation but not fireproof

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 - Roof overhang (eaves) should be greater 50cm to provide adequate protection from
sun and rains
- Ventilation openings.
DOOR- a tight-fitting door (2m high) is essential at the end of the house.
WIDTH- the width of an open sided broiler house that uses natural ventilation system should
not exceed 9m for efficient ventilation.
ORIENTATION-the broiler house should face East-West direction to ensure maximum
lighting and yet avoid direct entry of sunrays.

CARE OF BROILERS TO ENSURE OPTIMAL PRODUCTION

A] Animal handling (Broilers)

One could frighten or hurt the chickens without intention. A frightened chicken is an
unproductive chicken. It is therefore vital that the following are considered when handling or
working with chickens:
• Never surprise chickens – when you approach the chicken house make noise or sing
to alert them that you are coming. Open the door slowly and gently
• Move slowly – while inside the chicken house, never flap an empty meal sack or
cloth. They find that alarming.
• Catching birds – it is best done in the evening when they have gone to roost on their
perches. At that time they would be sleeping and offer no resistance. If you have to
catch them during the day, keep your hands low and try to grab the legs quickly.
• Hold a chicken firmly so that it cannot struggle and hurt itself. It means holding it by
both wings and legs with the head hanging down.
• Keep a regular routine as regarding provision of water, feed and cleaning water
troughs
• When moving birds to a new place, its best to make sure that they are not crowded in
the crates.
• Examine the birds’ everyday to check if they are sick, lame or not eating and cull
unproductive birds.

B] Record keeping
Record keeping is essential in a broiler production for the following reasons;
To assist monitor progress in the achievement of set goals/ objectives; to help assess financial
performance of enterprise over a period of time; good records assist farmers to obtain a loan
from financial institutions; they provide figures for planning and budgeting; records help one
to compare his performance with those of other farmers, hence encourage competition

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Production records in broiler production include;
Live weight gain; mortality record; vaccination record; inventory; ill and treatment records
Financial records (details of income and expenditure of all transactions of a business). They
include;
Sales records; debtors and creditors records; cash record(records all cash received and paid
out by the business enterprise)
C] Rearing of young stock-In broiler production, this refers to management of chicks from
day-old to 4 weeks of age, when they are in a brooder.
Preparation for the arrival of day-old chicks-Thorough prepares for the arrival of day-old
chicks is the first and most important step in the proper management of broiler chicks. The
following needs to be attended to;
• Repair, clean and disinfect the building and equipment with s disinfectant as
thoroughly as possible. Leave the building empty for two weeks before the arrival of
chicks.
• In case of a deep litter system cover the floor with litter.
• Ensure that the
• Building as well as brooders reaches the desired temperature 25 – 350C.
• Light brooder lamps or any source of heat 24 hours before arrival of chicks
• Ensure adequate supply of feed in the store i.e. chick starter mash for broilers.
• There should be adequate supply of certain vaccines and drugs. New Castle vaccine
and stress pack should be available at the time or arrival of one day chicks.
• The stockman should check that number of received is correct.
D] Nutrition and feeding practices
Broilers are given free access to appropriate feed and clean water to promote rapid g growth.
For feeding purposes, each group is fed a different type of feed formulated to meet nutritional
requirements of the age group. Thus, a broiler feeding programme normally consists of three
phases.
I] PHASE 1(0-2 weeks): CHICK STARTER MASH…. chicks are fed with chick starter
mash from day 1 to 2 weeks. The feed has much higher protein (content), high levels of
minerals and vitamins. Chick starter mash is formulated to give needed nutrients for rapid
growth.
II] PHASE 2 (3-6WEEKS) BROILER FINISHER MASH…. chicks are fed with broiler
finisher mash rich in energy to meet the requirements of more active chickens during this
period. This feed contains lower protein content (18-20%)

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III] PHASE 3(7-8 WEEKS) BROILER POST FINISHER MASH…. At this stage
chickens are fully grown, and their metabolism doesn’t require such a high protein diet. This
feed is aimed at giving final boost to produce substantial table or kill weights.
Amount of feed consumed. Form day old to 8 weeks of age, a chicken consumes about 3.5kg
of feed. At this age chicken should be weighing 1.5- 1.8 kg.

E] Water Quality Management

• Clean, fresh water should always be available.

• Test water regularly for:
o pH (ideal: 6.0–6.8)
o Salinity (should be low)
o Bacterial contamination (especially E. coli, Salmonella).
• Clean water lines, drinkers, and tanks regularly to prevent biofilm and algae buildup.
• Avoid stagnant water; use nipple drinkers or clean bell drinkers.
• Treat water with appropriate sanitizers like chlorine or hydrogen peroxide if needed
(under expert guidance).

F] Hygiene and Sanitation

• Clean and disinfect the poultry house before introducing chicks.

• Use footbaths, hand sanitizers, and limit visitors.
• Practice all-in/all-out system—remove all birds before introducing a new batch.
• Use dry, absorbent litter (e.g., wood shavings) and keep it clean and dry to prevent
respiratory issues.
• Regularly clean feeders and drinkers.
• Dispose of dead birds immediately in a sanitary manner (e.g., deep burial,
incineration).

G] Parasites

• External parasites: lice, mites

o Use approved insecticides or natural remedies (e.g., neem-based sprays).
o Dust birds and litter with appropriate powders.
• Internal parasites: worms (roundworms, cecal worms)
o Deworm regularly based on veterinary recommendations.
o Rotate pastures (if free-range) and avoid overcrowding to reduce exposure.

H] Diseases

• Common broiler diseases include:

o Coccidiosis
o Newcastle Disease
o Gumboro (infectious Bursal Disease (IBD)
o Infectious Bronchitis
o Avian Influenza
• Prevention and control:
o Vaccinate according to a recommended schedule.

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 o Practice biosecurity: isolate new birds, prevent contact with wild birds.
o Monitor for signs: diarrhea, coughing, drooping wings, reduced feed/water
intake.
o Consult a vet immediately if you notice unusual symptoms.

MARKETING OF BROILER PRODUCTS

Marketing of Broiler Products and By-products

1. Cleaning

• Involves hygienic washing and removal of feathers, blood, and internal waste from
slaughtered birds.
• Ensures compliance with food safety standards.
• Prevents contamination and spoilage.

2. Sorting

• Broilers are sorted based on size, weight, and appearance.

• Helps meet specific customer demands (e.g. whole birds, drumsticks, wings).

3. Grading

• Products are graded into quality categories (e.g. Grade A, B, C).

• Based on factors like freshness, absence of bruises, and uniformity in size.
• Facilitates pricing and market targeting.

4. Processing

• May include deboning, cutting, mincing, or converting into value-added products (e.g.
nuggets, sausages).
• By-products like blood, feathers, and offal may be processed into:
o Feather meal (animal feed)
o Blood meal
o Manure or compost
o Pet food

5. Packaging

• Use of hygienic, tamper-proof, and labeled packaging (plastic trays, vacuum packs,
shrink wraps).
• Includes labeling with nutritional information, expiry date, and storage instructions.
• Enhances shelf life and brand identity.

6. Storage

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 • Cold storage at appropriate temperatures to prevent spoilage:
o Fresh meat: 0–4°C
o Frozen meat: -18°C or lower
• Storage facilities must be clean and well-maintained.

7. Advertising

• Promotion through local media, social media, flyers, and posters.

• Emphasizes quality, affordability, hygiene, and delivery service.
• Builds brand awareness and customer loyalty.

8. Selling

• Can be done through various channels:

o Farm gate sales
o Retail shops
o Supermarkets
o Online platforms
o Hotels/restaurants
• Selling may be wholesale or retail depending on scale.

9. Delivery

• Use of refrigerated trucks or insulated boxes for transport.

• Ensures product freshness and compliance with food safety regulations.
• Direct-to-consumer delivery adds value and convenience.

Appropriate Use of Tools, Implements, and Machinery in Broiler Rearing

1. Feeding Equipment

• Automatic or manual feeders

o Distribute feed evenly to reduce wastage.
o Must be cleaned regularly to prevent mold or contamination.
• Feed bins and silos
o Used for bulk feed storage.
o Protect feed from moisture, pests, and contamination.

2. Drinking Equipment

• Nipple drinkers
o Provide clean water with minimal spillage.
o Suitable for chicks and grown birds.
• Bell drinkers
o Common in semi-automated systems.
o Must be at correct height to prevent neck strain and wet litter.

3. Heating and Brooding Equipment

• Infrared brooders or gas brooders

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 o Provide warmth during early stages of broiler growth.
o Should be positioned to maintain the right brooding temperature.
• Thermometers
o Monitor ambient temperature to ensure birds are comfortable.

4. Ventilation Equipment

• Fans and exhaust systems

o Ensure proper air circulation and removal of ammonia.
• Curtains or side vents
o Used in open-sided poultry houses to control air flow.

5. Litter Management Tools

• Rakes or shovels
o Used for turning and removing wet litter.
• Wheelbarrows
o For transporting waste litter to compost areas or disposal sites.

6. Health and Sanitation Tools

• Footbaths
o Placed at the entrance to prevent disease entry.
• Sprayers or fumigators
o Used to disinfect the house before and between flocks.
• Vaccination kits (syringes, droppers)
o Administer vaccines accurately and hygienically.

7. Weighing and Monitoring Tools

• Weighing scales
o Used to track growth rate and feed conversion efficiency.
• Record-keeping tools (notebooks, apps)
o Monitor daily performance, mortality, and medication use.

8. Lighting Equipment

• LED or fluorescent lights

o Ensure proper light intensity and duration for optimal growth.
o Timers can automate lighting schedules.

Good Practices for Use

• Always clean and disinfect equipment regularly.

• Ensure tools are properly maintained and stored.
• Calibrate machinery (like feeders and drinkers) for uniform distribution.
• Use energy-efficient machines to reduce production costs.

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Appropriate Use of Tools, Implements & Machinery in
Broiler Rearing
(With Safety, Health, Environmental & Quality Considerations)

Safety & Health Environmental &

Category Tool/Equipment Appropriate Use
Measures Quality Measures
Clean regularly to
Use non-toxic,
Distribute feed avoid mold and
durable plastic or
Feeders evenly to prevent disease. Prevent
Feeding metal. Avoid
(manual/automatic) waste. Adjust overfilling to
spillage to reduce
height to bird size. reduce feed
litter pollution.
spoilage.
Keep silo ladders
and openings safe Place silos on
Store bulk feed
from falls. Wear concrete platforms
Feed silos/bins under hygienic,
dust masks when to prevent ground
dry conditions.
handling contamination.
powdered feed.
Sanitize daily to
Provide clean Reduce water
prevent disease.
water. Adjust waste. Avoid
Nipple or bell Avoid leakage to
Drinking height as broilers pooling that leads
drinkers prevent slippery
grow. Maintain to ammonia
floors and wet
proper pressure. buildup.
litter.
Maintain Install safely
Use energy-
recommended away from
efficient models.
Gas temperatures (e.g., flammable litter.
Monitor regularly
Heating brooders/Infrared 32–34°C for Ensure good
to avoid
lamps chicks). Place ventilation to
overheating or fire
evenly for prevent gas
hazards.
uniform warmth. poisoning.
Ensure airflow
Keep electrical
removes moisture Reduce dust and air
components dry
and ammonia. Use pollution. Conserve
Ventilation Exhaust fans, vents and clean.
thermostats or energy through
Prevent access by
sensors for proper design.
birds or rodents.
automatic control.
Remove wet litter
Compost used litter
and clean pens Use gloves and
or dispose of it
Litter Rakes, shovels, regularly. masks when
safely to prevent
Handling wheelbarrows Maintain dry, handling waste to
environmental
absorbent avoid disease.
contamination.
bedding.
Disinfect poultry Wear PPE Use biodegradable
Sprayers,
Sanitation house before and (masks, gloves, disinfectants where
disinfectants
after each cycle. overalls). Avoid possible. Avoid

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 Safety & Health Environmental &
Category Tool/Equipment Appropriate Use
Measures Quality Measures
Apply approved inhaling or chemical runoff
chemicals spilling into soil/water.
properly. chemicals.
Ensure users
actually step in; Prevent disease
Place at entry
change solution spread between
Footbaths points; refresh
frequently to flocks and
solution regularly.
maintain environments.
effectiveness.
Administer
Disinfect before Maintain vaccine
vaccines correctly
and after use. cold chain. Follow
Vaccination Syringes, droppers (dosage, method).
Dispose of national animal
Record batch and
needles safely. health guidelines.
expiry dates.
Weigh samples Use stable Helps optimize
weekly. Record surfaces to feed usage, reduce
Weighing &
Scales, digital apps feed consumption, prevent injuries. overfeeding, and
Monitoring
mortality, and Keep records ensure quality
growth rate. clean and legible.
control.
Use energy-
Maintain
efficient lights.
consistent light Install wiring
Minimize
Lighting LED bulbs, timers and dark periods. safely to avoid
unnecessary
Use timers for electrical hazards.
lighting to reduce
efficiency.
energy use.

Summary of Best Practices:

• Health: Regular cleaning and disinfection of equipment reduce disease.

• Safety: Train workers on safe use of machines and protective gear.
• Environment: Manage waste responsibly and reduce water/feed spillage.
• Quality: Maintain optimal housing conditions to ensure healthy, market-ready
birds.

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