MICROBIO STUDY GUIDE

Cytokines: Small secreted proteins released by various cells, act as messengers between cells -
Interleukins: cytokines between leukocytes
Chemokines: draw leukocytes to the site of inflammation.
Interferons: interfere with viral replication
Tumor Necrosis Factor (alpha): play an important role in inflammatory reactions of
autoimmune disease

Opportunistic Pathogen: a pathogen that usually causes no harm under normal conditions (normal
microbiota) Ex: people with altered body conditions caused by treatment of broad spectrum
antibiotics, immune disorder is more prone to opportunistic infections.) ([Link], trichomonas
vaginalis)

Nosocomial infection:
• Infections occurred while a person is receiving treatments in a health care setting AKA Health
associated infections (HAIs).
• Most common type UTI caused by E. Coli, wound infection, MRSA.

Koch’s postulates:
• specific microbes cause specific diseases.

Herd immunity:
• Immunity in most of the population.

Cause of Herd Immunity:

• Outbreaks are sporadic due to lack of susceptible individuals. Most effective way to get herd
immunity is vaccinations.

Sign:
• objective/measurable of human conditions.
• Ex: Elevated BP; temp.

Symptoms:
• subjective, what is felt by the patient.
• Ex: HA, throat soreness

CDC:
• Center for Disease Control and Prevention.
• MMWR contains data of morbidity, the incidence of specific notifiable dx & mortality,
number of deaths from these dx.

Endotoxins:
• On the LPS layer of gram-negative bacteria (Lipid A). Gets released by the destruction of
the LPS layer.
ID 50:
• Infectious dose, dose needed to infect 50 percent of a exposed population
• Measures ability to cause disease (virulence) of a microbe.
• Lower is always worse.
• EX: Botulinum 0.03 ng/kg — Shiga toxin 250 ng/kg — Staphylococcal enterotoxin 1350
ng/kg — Botulinum would be worse because it takes less amount of toxin to kill the same
amount of ppl
LD 50:
• Lethal Dose, dose needed to kill 50 percent of the exposed population.
• Measures potency of a toxin.
The lower the LD50 or ID50, the worse the pathogen/toxin is

Ciliary Escalator:
• a mechanism of trapping and moving particles up and out of the respiratory system.

Opsonization:
• one result of antigen-antibody binding. Serum protein binding to mark a pathogen and allows
Macrophages to better bind to the pathogen. Covering a pathogen with antibody, which
helps with phagocytosis.

Antigen:
• Any substance that causes the production of antibodies/ immune response.
• Usually on surface of pathogen

Hybridoma:
• the process of combining a myeloma (immortal cancerous) and a healthy antibody producing B
cell.
• Main source of monoclonal antibodies.

Toxoid Vaccine:
• Under sub-unit vaccine, inactivated toxins.
• Ex: Tetanus and Diptheria Toxoid.

Attenuated whole-agent vaccine:

• Live attenuated vaccine. Weakened pathogen, and mimics an actual infection, can provide a
lifetime of immunity.
• Ex: Measles, Polio, Mumps

Warts:
• Caused by Papillomavirus via contact.
• Some (type 16 and 18) HPV can Transform cells and can cause cancer.

Oral thrush:
• Infection caused by the overgrowth of Candida Albicans (yeast).
• Occur in the genitourinary tract and mouth.
• Opportunistic infections
Sporotrichosis:
• Rose Gardener’s Disease
• Subcutaneous infection caused by Sporothrix schenkii (dimorphicfungus).
• Enters a wound and forms a small ulcer.
• Treatment is Potassium Iodide or antifungal medications (flouconazole).

Scabies:
• Caused by Sarcoptes scabiei mites
• Burrows in the skin to lay eggs resulting in inflammatory skin lesion.
• Transmitted through close contact.

Tetanospasmin:
• Extremely potent neurotoxin produced by growing bacteria (C. tetani) and enter the CNS.
• Causes spasms in the muscles (muscular spasm).
• Tetanus caused by this toxin.

Toxoplasmosis:
• a disease of blood and lymphatic vessels, is caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii.
o Sexual phase in cat intestines (oocysts shed in cat feces)
• Contact with cat feces or undercooked meat introduces oocyst to intestines
• Primary danger (Congenital)
o Stillbirth
o Neurological damage

Ghon’s complex:
• lesions seen in the lungs that is caused by tuberculosis

M proteins:
• Cell wall components that resist phagocytosis
• Usually found on surface of some pathogens
• M protein enhances the virulence of Streptococcus by preventing phagocytosis.

Pediculus humanus:
• different types of lice:
• Head lice: Capitis
• Body lice: Corporis.

Hemagglutination Reactions:
• The clumping of RBC with their opposing antibodies.
• This reaction is used to determine blood type.

Apoptosis:
• Programmed cell death.
• NK cells and Cytotoxic T cell can trigger this using perforin and granzymes.
Fermentation:
• the process of turning sugar into alcohol in the absence of oxygen.
• Ex: making wine or beer

Dark-field microscope:
• Light objects are visible against a dark background.
• Used when we cannot stain the sample.

Electron microscope:
• Uses electrons instead of light waves.
• It has the highest resolution & magnification.

Biogenesis:
• The idea that all life comes from pre-existing life.
• Proved by Louise Pasture

Spontaneous Generation:
• Theory that life comes from nonliving matter.
• Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation.

Steps of gram staining:

1) Crystal violet (stain)
2) Iodine (Mordant)
3) Alcohol wash (decolorizer)
4) Safranin (counterstain)

• Gram-positive after staining will be: purple/blue in color

• Gram-negative after staining will be: pink/red in color (has lipid A endotoxin and LPS
layer)
1. If you stop at step 3 (alcohol wash) gram-positive will be purple/blue in color
2. If you stop at step 3 (alcohol wash) gram-negative will be colorless
3. Role of alcohol in the staining process is decolorization.

Prepare Slide:
1. Smear
2. Fixation
3. Stain

Latent viral infection:

• Infection that is caused by the same pathogen with periods of no signs and symptoms in
between periods of illness.
• Ex: HSV1/HSV2, Chickenpox and Shingles
QUESTIONS/ANSWERS

1. How do you treat a female with greenish yellow foul-smelling discharge? The
female most likely has Trichomoniasis, caused by protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis,
which can be treated with metronidazole-antiprotozoal.

2. What is Pediculus humanus capitis and what disease is caused by it? Lice on the
head that causes pediculosis which is an infestation of lice

3. What are the effects of histamine?

a. Vasodilation
b. Increases blood vessel permeability leading to redness
c. Edema
d. Pain
e. Heat f. sometimes loss of function

4. Blue green pus is the sign of what infection with what pathogen? Pseudomonas
aeruginosa which is a gram-negative bacteria found in catheters
Pyocyanin produces blue-green pus

5. Rice water stool are characteristics of what disease? Cholera, caused by ingesting
contaminated water leading to severe vomiting & diarrhea

6. Many bacterial infections of the GI system causing diarrhea are treated with what
symptomatic treatment? Oral rehydration & electrolytes, ORS

7. What are typical symptoms of the flu?

a. Fever

b. Body aches

c. Headache

d. Chills

The flu does not have any gastrointestinal symptoms

8. What are predisposing factors of cystitis in females?

a. Shorter urethra

b. Urethra is closer to the anus

c. Poor hygiene

d. Sexual intercourse
9. Blood typing is an example of what type of Antigen antibody reaction?
Hemagglutination reactions

10. What is normal vaginal microbiota, what is the ph., in what conditions flora is
destroyed, what pathogen grows commonly if normal flora is lost? Normal
microbiota is lactobacillus. Normal Vaginal pH level is below 5, when a patient is
treated with antibiotics it kills the normal microbiota. If the normal microbiota is
destroyed, Candida albicans grows abundantly, leads to yeast infection

11. What conditions lead to pyelonephritis? (Pyelonephritis: Inflammation of one

or both kidneys) Inflammation of one or both kidneys. Any infections below the
kidneys such as urethritis, cystitis, ureteritis

12. Most common causes of: pyelonephritis, urethritis, cystitis?

Pyelonephritis is caused by UTI= E. coli

Urethritis: infections of the ureters= E. coli
Cystitis: Bladder infection caused by E. coli

13. What are the most common reservoirs of Leptospirosis?

Transmitted by skin/mucosal contact from urine -contaminated water from domesticated or wild
animals

14. What is the treatment of tetanus in immunized and unimmunized patients?

• In immunized patient, the treatment is Tetanus Booster/ vaccine (Td)
• In unimmunized, Tetanus Vaccine Td, and TIG (Tetanus Immunoglobulin shot)

15. What is normal flora of male bladder? Normal urine is NOT STERILE; Study of urine
microbiota is still in its early days.

16. Itching and Cheesy vaginal discharge is the sign of what condition? Vulvovaginal
candidiasis Candida; antifungal medications are given as treatment

17. What is the most common cause of ‘Pink Eye’?

• Haemophilus influenzae is the most common bacterial
• cause viral conjunctivitis is usually caused by adenoviruses
18. What is the mechanism of staphylococcal food poisoning? Can it be prevented by
heating food?

19. What is the most common cause of travelers’ diarrhea? Enterotoxigenic E. Coli (ETEC)

20. Mode of HAV and HBV transmission.

• HAV: fecal-oral. Drinking or eating contaminated substances
• HBV: bodily fluid of an infected person, spread vertical transmission (mother to fetus) or
intercourse

21. What is the mode of spread of botulism? Through canned food in an anaerobic environment.
Since the anaerobic environment allows Clostridium botulinum to grow, bacteria produces toxin
and consumption of that toxin is the mode of spread

22. Why treating gram negative infection may lead to shock?

• Also called endotoxin shock (lipopolysaccharides LPS); Causes a severe drop in blood pressure
• Antibiotics cause release of endotoxins
• Antibiotics can worsen the condition by killing bacteria.
23. When do chills happen? Chill happens when the body temperature is rising.
Sweating is a sign that temperature is falling

24. What immune cells are found in high numbers in helminthic infections? IgE: Mast cells,
basophils, and in blood. (Eosinophils)

25. What cells are the blood precursors of Macrophages? Monocytes are precursors of
macrophages

26. What is the difference between active vs passive immunity; natural vs acquired immunity
and examples?

1. Naturally Acquired Active Immunity : Immunity resulting from infection, this type of
immunity may be long-lasting.

2. Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity: Antibodies transferred from a mother to a fetus

(transplacental transfer) or to a newborn in colostrum. This type of immunity can last
up to a few months.
3. Artificially Acquired Active Immunity : immunity resulting from vaccination and can be
long-lasting.

4. Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity: Refers to humoral antibodies acquired by

injection; this type of immunity can last for a few weeks.
27. What is the structure of an antibody? A typical antibody is a Y shaped molecule consisting of
four protein chains: Two identical heavy chains & Two identical light chains → Are joined by
disulfide bridges.

28. What are the antigen and cellular binding sites? What are constant and variable regions
of Abs?

a and b - variable region (antigen binding site)

c and d - constant region (cellular binding site)

29. Why is meningitis difficult to treat? Many antibiotics cannot penetrate BBB

30. What is the most abundant Ig in serum, what is most abundant in saliva, what Ig is
found higher in helminthic infection?
IgG is more abundant in serum
IgA is most abundant in saliva, tears, mucous
IgE is found higher in helminthic infection
31. What Immunoglobulin (Ig) indicates current- first time infection (rather than previous
infection? First time infection is IgM

32. What are major sources of antibiotics? Most antibiotics are made by other bacterias

33. Why are helminthic diseases difficult to treat?

Because their cells and human cells are eukaryotic / have eukaryotic cells (similar characteristic).
The treatment risks harming the human cell as well as the helminths

34. What are the names of five anthelminthic drugs?

Niclosamide: prevents ATP generation in mitochondria,

- used to treat tapeworm infection
Praziquantel: Alters plasma membrane
- Treats tapeworms and Flukes
Pyrantel pamoate: Neuromuscular block
- kills roundworms
Mebendazole/Albendazole: interfere with nutrient absorption
- treats Intestinal helminths
Ivermectin: paralyzes intestinal
- treats roundworms and mites

35. Infections caused by HSV 1, 2 and 3 viruses?

HSV-: Causes cold sores or fever blister, 90% of people in the U.S population have it
HSV-2: Causes genital herpes spread through sexual intercourse
HHV-3: herpesvirus Varicella virus, virus enters the respiratory system causes chickenpox and
shingles

36. What is the causative agent of acne, what role avoidance of fatty foods play in treatment?
• Causative Agent: Propionibacterium acne (P. acne)
• Fatty foods play no role in treatment.

37. What are subcutaneous mycoses, what is the most common in the US and how is it
treated?
• Subcutaneous mycoses: a fungal infection of tissue beneath the skin.
• Sporotrichosis caused by Sporothrix schenkii
• Treated with potassium iodide
38. What skin conditions are caused by Staphylococcus. aures?
• Folliculitis: infection of the hair follicles
• Sty: folliculitis of eyelash
• Furuncle (boil): the type of abscess in a localized region of puss surrounded by inflamed tissue.
• Carbuncle: Damage and inflammation of deep tissue from a spreading furuncle.
• Impetigo: crusting (nonbullous) sore, spread by autoinoculation.

39. What is the treatment of shingles? Acyclovir (antiviral)

40. Why are Arbor viral encephalitis common in summer months? Due to the increase of
mosquito population in the summer months.

41. What are the names of common prions diseases?

• PRION: is an abnormally folded protein
• TSE: Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies
• Sheep scrapie: TSE in sheep
• Chronic wasting disease: TSE in deer and elk
• Creutzfeldt-jakob Disease (CJD): TSE in humans
• Kuru: TSE in humans that caused by Cannibalism
• Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE): Mad Cow Disease - Possible due to cattle eating
feed containing bone meal from scrapie infected sheep

42. What diseases are caused by arborviruses?

Diseases are spread via insects
1. Dengue (dingy) 2. West bile (bird) 3. Yellow fever (cow) 4. St Louis encephalitis (bunya family)
5. Zika virus

43. What are the negative effects of live attenuated vaccines? reversion of attenuated strain to
full virulence, can cause the same disease they are trying to prevent

44. What is the most effective way of preventing flu in a community? The best way to prevent
influenza is to get a flu vaccine every year.

45. What is the cause of sore throat? not enough information

46. What are predisposing factors to cystitis in females? Caused by Escherichia coli, sexual
intercourse, diabetes, pregnancy, catheterization, fecal incontinence, old age, and immobility.

47. Recurring vesicles on skin happen in what viral condition? Herpes Simplex Virus 1 and 2
aka fever blisters or cold sores. Recurring viral infection. The blisters usually appear on the lips or
nostrils.

48. What are examples of hemagglutination reactions?

Blood typing

49. What is the treatment of Syphilis? A single injection of long-acting Benzathine penicillin G
can cure the early stages of syphilis. If latent Pen G x3 q weekly
Obligate Aerobes Facultative Anaerobes Obligate Aerotolerant Microaerophiles
Anaerobes Anaerobes

Growth only Growth is best where Growth only Growth only Growth occurs
occurs where most oxygen is occurs where occurs evenly; only where a
high present, but still this is no oxygen has no low
concentrations of occurs oxygen effect concentration of
oxygen have throughout the oxygen has
diffused into the tube. Both diffused into the
medium aerobic and medium. Only
anaerobic growth, aerobic
but better in growth, but only
oxygen in LOW
concentrations
of oxygen