CHAPTER 7

Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum

In the preceding chapters, we have focused on the knowledge base for teaching pronuncia-

tion. In this chapter, the focus shifts to the decision-making process that teachers go through
in planning instruction. We begin by examining the issues of intelligibility and accent
models within the larger context of we ask the
setting realistic goals for our learners. Next,
basic questions facing the teacher of pronunciation: Who are our learners? What is their %
language background? What speaking situations do these learners face? What other factors
affect our instructional choices? Once these variables are addressed, we look at how to tailor
pronunciation instruction to a particular group of learners. Finally, we present a series of
cases as illustrative models.

Setting Realistic Goals

Kjellin (1999) coined the term accent addition as a reaction against the term “accent
reduction.” Rather than viewing pronunciation instruction as a way of fixing or removing
an obstacle, Kjellin recast the process in a much more positive light, that is, that of adding
a new skill or talent to one’s repertoire. This simple but crucial difference reenvisions the
relationship between teachers and learners. It not only narrows the scope of instruction
but also acknowledges the value of the language skills the learner brings to the endeavor.
In short, the LI identity of the learner does not need to be erased or replaced in the L2
pronunciation classroom.
Beyond readjusting our view of pronunciation learning, we also need to set realistic
goals for instruction. Morley (1999) describes these as functional intelligibility, functional
communicability, increased self-confidence, and speech-monitoring abilities. Intelligibility

does not refer to a complete lack of accent but rather an accent (which we all have no matter
which variety of English we speak) that does not distract the listener. As such, intelligibility
becomes a goal for all speakers of English, not just nonnative ones. In our increasingly global

world, successful use of English might require all of us to add an international English

274
 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 275

accent to our local or regional one. This concept reflects the same kind of learner-centered,
realistic approach that has defined methodological advances in our field. Communicability ,

as Morley defines it, refers to how well the learner is able to function in the particular com-
municative situations he or she faces. As with any skill, we always need to ask ourselves:

What do these learners need to do in English? If our practice materials reflect the actual
situations our learners will face, then learners will gain confidence in their ability to function

in these situations. Finally, if learners learn to monitor their own speech as well as that of
others, they will make better use of the input they receive.

DEFINING INTELLIGIBILITY
Various terms and definitions have been used to describe the notion of intelligibility.

Although some researchers use terms interchangeably, others differentiate them. Smith and 1

Nelson (1985) define intelligibility as the listener’s ability to recognize words or utterances,
but they use the term comprehensibility to refer to the ability to understand those words
or utterances in their given context. Field (2005) uses both terms but sees intelligibility
as one part of the broader concept of comprehensibility. Munro and Derwing (1995) use
three terms to describe a speaker's pronunciation - intelligibility, comprehensibility, and
accentedness, which they differentiate in the following way: Some listeners in their research

rated a speech sample as heavily accented (accentedness) yet were still able to transcribe it

correctly (intelligibility) and judged it easy to understand (comprehensibility). Such findings

underscore the need to view intelligibility as more than just an “accent.”
Furthermore, as Smith and Nelson (1985, 333) point out, “[Ijntelligibility is not speaker-
or listener-centered but is interactional between speaker and hearer.” This means that the

burden of intelligibility is not entirely on the speaker, as is often assumed, and that require-
ments for intelligibility can shift according to the interlocutors and the context. As Brown
(1991b) states:

Analysis of the term intelligibility requires discussion of the question “intelligibil-

ity to who [sic]?” That is, a speaker may be more intelligible or less intelligible to
a listener, depending on who the particular listener is, rather than on the clarity of
the speech itself, (p. 45)

ACCENT AND IDENTITY

We must also recognize that accent is connected to personal identity and can represent
identification with or membership in a particular group. Regional accents within one coun-
try are an example of this. Just as accent can be a sign of status, it can also be a basis for
discrimination (Fippi-Green 1997). Here are two examples of comments made by English-
language learners when asked how their accents are perceived:

I felt afraid that people were afraid to sit down with me sometimes. Because they
felt that maybe they can't understand me or I can’t understand them. (Derwing
2003, 558)

Sometimes when I speak to native American, I guess because of my Chinese a

sense \accent] or mispronunciate [sic] the word, they ask me what did you say,
can you repeat, or I beg your pardon. Sometime my face turn red, and become

1
See Chapter 2 for a detailed discussion of research on intelligibility.
276 Issues in Implementation

so embarrassed in front of them. I remembered once my tears were in my eyes.

(Goodwin 2001, 1 17)

These comments reveal the frustrations that our learners feel, the discrimination they
experience, and the very human and emotional element present in the teaching and learning
of pronunciation.

PRONUNCIATION MODELS
The issue of intelligibility leads us to the question of which accent or model we are target-
ing. Whereas practitioners may have historically struggled to teach the “Queen’s English,”
whether they themselves had mastered it or not, teachers are now encouraged to make
instructional decisions based on a more realistic view of language intelligibility as well as a

more tailored view of our learners’ needs and desires. Cook (1999) argues that the traditional
focus on the native speaker in language teaching has created an unattainable goal, causing
the profession to overlook the value of the successful L2 user as a model. Cook proposes
the notion of the multicompetent language user:

In the classroom, teachers can recognize this status by incorporating goals based
on L2 users in the outside world, bringing L2-user situations and roles into the
classroom, deliberately using the students’ LI in teaching activities, and looking to
descriptions of L2 L2 learners
users or rather than descriptions of native speakers
as a source of information. The main benefits of recognizing that L2 users are
speakers in their own right, however, will come from students’ and teachers’ hav-
ing a positive image of L2 users rather than seeing them as failed native speakers.

(p. 185)

Kachru, who coined the term World Englishes ,

2
also shifts the paradigm away from
dominance by traditional English-speaking countries toward a more global, varied, and
encompassing view of English use in the world today (1985, 1986). In order to represent
how English is used in various contexts, Kachru uses the terms inner circle outer circle , ,

and expanding circle. The inner circle includes traditional English-speaking countries such
as Great Britain, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States. The outer circle
consists of countries that were colonized and then developed a local variety of English.
Examples include India, Nigeria, Singapore, and the Philippines. The expanding circle refers

to countries where English is studied as a foreign language and may be used as a lingua
franca with speakers from other countries, often in a business or trade context, such as South
Korea, China, and Brazil. Whereas research has traditionally focused on the inner circle, or

“native speaker,” varieties, research on English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) is growing, in large

measure due to the work of Jenkins (2000) on intelligibility between nonnative speakers.
In sum, when faced with the question of which accent or model to choose, teachers

are encouraged to expand the focus of instruction by imagining the multiple speaking
situations their learners might face in the future. Scales et al. (2006, 735) suggest having
English-language learners “hear, analyze, and compare key features among a variety of
[Link] an approach would address both intelligibility and listening comprehension,
increasing communicative flexibility and respect for accent diversity.”

2
For a detailed discussion of this topic, see Kirkpatrick (2007).
 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 277

Assessing the Teaching Situation

Once teachers have set realistic goals regarding intelligibility and the accent or models we
we can move forward with planning. Certain variables will have an effect
are targeting,
on what we teach and how we teach it. These factors include the setting we teach in, who
our learners are, what their first language is, and what they need to do with the language.
In addition, theamount and type of teacher preparation and any constraints regarding cur-
riculum and materials need to be considered. On a practical level, the number of students,
the amount of time devoted to pronunciation each week, and the availability of instructional
resources all Well start by looking at
play a role in determining the course of instruction.
the big picture, whether the setting is English as a Second Language ( ESL ), English as a
Foreign Language ( EFL), or English as an International Language (EIL).

The Setting
If intelligibility is defined as the success of spoken interactions, taking both the listener and
speaker into account, then intelligibility demands will vary by setting - ESL, EFL, or EIL.

ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE (ESL)

ESL refers to language instruction where English is the primary language of the country,
as for example in Great Britain, the United States, or Australia (all part of Kachru’s “inner
circle”). Learners in this setting have easy access to the target language since it surrounds
them. The target norm is usually the variety of English spoken in that country, for example.
North American English (NAE) in North America 3 or Received Pronunciation (RP) in

Great Britain, and the teacher is often a native speaker. Learners typically do not all share
the same LI and teachers may lack knowledge of their students’ LI sound systems. 4 The
typical ESL learner is often an immigrant who has moved permanently to the English-
speaking country or a foreign-language learner who is living or studying abroad for some
limited period of time. Occasionally, speakers of a different variety of English such as
Indian English or Nigerian English may find themselves in an ESL pronunciation class,
such as one for prospective graduate teaching assistants at a U.S. university. Each group of
learners is different, a fact which underscores the need to recognize that we are aiming for
multicompetence and accent addition - a perspective that acknowledges the competencies
our learners already possess.

ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (EFL)

EFL traditionally refers to a context where English is not an official language of the country
and citizens or residents do not regularly use English to communicate with each other as in
Japan, Poland, or Mexico. Typically, there is less access to English outside the classroom
and learners are a monolingual group sharing the same LI. EFL teachers, who are often
highly competent L2 users rather than native speakers, have traditionally been reluctant to
focus on pronunciation. But as the goal has shifted to context-specific intelligibility rather
than native-speaker imitation, the profession has come to recognize the value of these

3
This is also referred to as General American (GA) in Great Britain.
4
Fora detailed analysis of LI interference in English for over 20 languages, see Swan and Smith (2001). Other
sources include Hirst and DiCristo (1998), Avery and Ehrlich (1992) and Kenworthy (1987).
Issues in Implementation

nonnative teachers both because of their knowledge of their learners’ LI and because of
their experience acquiring English as native speakers of that LI (Snow, Kamhi-Stein, and
Brinton 2006). As Walker (2001) concludes:

By viewing English as a tool for international intelligibility, we establish a new

perspective on pronunciation goals, with priorities that are both fewer in number
and more realistic than those previously set. For monolingual groups the learner’s
first language is a vital tool in achieving these new goals, and the bilingual non-
native speaker teacher is an ideal instructor, (p. 13)

Which accent should be the target in an EFL context? Obviously this depends on the
accent that is locally preferred or that the teacher has acquired based on previous study
or visits to an English-speaking country. It also depends on what the learners’ goals and
interests are. Some EFL learners are simply taking English as a required school subject;
others may need English for a specific context such as international business.

ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE (EIL)

Current methodological approaches consider English as an International Language, also

known as English as a Lingua Franca (ELF), to be a distinct and legitimate context for
instruction (Jenkins 2000; Kirkpatrick 2007). In this context, English functions as the
medium of communication between speakers who do not share the same LL This lingua
franca use of English has become particularly relevant given the fact that most speakers
of English do not speak it as a first language. In fact, there are many more interactions
conducted in English between nonnative speakers than there are interactions in which at

least one person is a native English speaker. So, which accent becomes the model in this

situation? Oftentimes, a local variety of English develops into the norm since teachers are
usually speakers of the local variety. In this context, the learner’s goal may not be to sound f
like a native of the United Kingdom
America but rather simply to communicate
or North
effectively with another nonnative speaker. The existence of multiple World Englishes has
opened up the options for both teachers and learners regarding the pronunciation model
they choose in English.
At this point, we have examined the three broad settings of instruction (ESL, EFL, and
EIL), looking at what constitutes intelligibility in different settings and in different interac-

tions between listeners and speakers. This helps us to choose an appropriate pronunciation
target and to set realistic goals for instruction. Now let’s narrow our focus to the specific
variables of a given teaching context.

The Learner
When designing pronunciation instruction, there are several learner variables that will influ-
ence our decisions. How old are the learners? What kind of English-language exposure and
instruction have they had? What is their motivation for studying English? What are their
speaking and pronunciation goals?
Age is a key factor since emphasizing accurate production early may prevent fossilized
pronunciation later on. (See Chapter 2 for a related discussion of learner variables; see also
Wong 1987b; Strevens 1991; Moyer 1999; Flege 1999; Marinova-Todd, Marshall, and Snow
2000). The learner’s proficiency and previous exposure to the second language (both in class

and out) are also important because these factors can determine whether to make use of a
phonemic alphabet and articulatory information about the sound system. Even more critical,
 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 279

however, is the learner's motivation to acquire intelligible or targetlike speech. Studies have
shown that EFL students often rate the importance of pronunciation in the curriculum as
high (Makarova and Ryan 2000; Peacock 1999). Derwing (2003) found that 97 percent of
the learners in her study believed or strongly believed that it was important to pronounce
English well. In another study (Scales et al. 2006), a majority of the learners wanted to have
a native-speaker accent.
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the role of identity is also quite crucial with regard
to the learner. Perhaps more than any other aspect, pronunciation is the salient feature of our
language competence. It is the lens through which we are viewed in each interactionwe have.
Our accent is a powerful sociological force; it reveals our group affiliation and often how we
see ourselves. Part of our work as pronunciation teachers is to acknowledge and recognize
the strong connection between pronunciation and identity and to empower our learners by
offering them the tools to achieve their personal goals, however they choose to define them.

THE LEARNER’S LI

As we noted in Chapter 2, students’ first languages color their perception and production of
English in many ways. Contrastive differences cause learners to transfer sounds and patterns
from their LI to the L2, creating a particular accent in that language. Traditional thinking on
instructional design suggests that at least on the segmental level, pronunciation instruction
should focus on these contrastive differences. Thus, for example, instruction for German
learners would focus on the consonants /0, d/, since these sounds do not exist in German.
But is this a sufficient basis for determining what we teach? German learners might, in fact,
have trouble articulating /0, 6/, but if their mispronunciations never cause a breakdown in

communication, and, despite repeated instruction, the errors persist, is it worth devoting
instructional time to these sounds?
Although a contrastive analysis can be informative when students in a class share a
first-language background, it is hard to make use of it in a class where many languages
are represented. For a multilingual class, we can use other linguistic guidelines such as
the functional load of an item (Brown 1991a; Catford 1987) or distinctive feature analysis
(Leahy 1991). The functional load of a phonemic contrast is generally determined by whether
it distinguishes a large number of words (such as /iy/ and hi) or whether it distinguishes

relatively few words (such as /u/ and /uw/). (See Appendix 10 for an elaboration of this topic

and a list of phonemic contrasts with a high functional load.) Distinctive-feature analysis
guides teachers to focus on features such as aspiration or the onset of voicing that might
differentiate the English sound system from the various LI sound systems represented in

a multilingual class.
Here are the issues we find most pertinent when looking at a student’s first language:

1. Does the learner’s LI tend to stress each syllable equally as in Japanese or

Spanish (syllable timing) or to exhibit patterns of stressed and unstressed syl-
5
lables as in English (stress timing)? Learners whose LI tends toward syllable
timing often transfer this pattern of stressing each syllable to English and have
difficulty reducing unstressed vowels. In this case, rhythm exercises (e.g.. Jazz
Chants, limericks, or poetry) would be a priority.
2. Do syllables in the LI end only in vowels? Speakers of such Lis have difficulty
both producing final consonants and linking words together. Such learners
need to practice articulating a final consonant, holding it, noting the physical

5
See Chapter 5 for a detailed explanation of syllable and stress timing.
280 Issues in Implementation

sensation of the closure, and then, if the sound is within a thought group, moving
smoothly to the next syllable.

3. Is the student’s first language tonal or intonational? Speakers of tonal languages

frequently have a narrow pitch range in English and need to be encouraged to
broaden it by exaggerating pitch movement. Furthermore, they need focused
instruction in how intonation affects the meaning of an utterance. Even those
students speaking an intonational first language need to distinguish patterns
in their first language from those in the target language, especially if their

language tends more toward syllable timing (e.g., Spanish or Korean).

Ultimately, linguistic variables do play a role in determining what to teach and when
to teach it. However, as Brown (1991a, 21 1) notes, the teacher must “decide which features
of language, on the one hand, are important and therefore merit precious class time and
which, on the other hand, are relatively unimportant and may be overlooked until a more
advanced stage.”

THE LEARNER’S SPEAKING NEEDS

What do learners need to accomplish orally in English? What interactions are most stressful
for them - making a phone call? Going to go the doctor? Making a presentation? Ideally,
our materials and language practice should reflect the actual speaking situations our learn-
ers face. Wennerstrom (1992) points out that learners are best motivated by pronunciation
materials taken directly from their own personal situations. Scales et al. (2006, 735) recom-
mend that courses be “expanded from the traditional focus on learner pronunciation alone
to include oral communication as a whole.” The more that learners can rehearse real-life
language and situations - and be understood - the more confidence and motivation they
will have. Whatever the situation, our goal should be to re-create those interactions in class
and draw pronunciation priorities from them. Figure 7.1 shows a few brief examples of
how teachers might tailor pronunciation instruction to different types of learners and the
language they need.

The Teaching Context

Every teacher functions within a larger educational context. Professional preparation and
development opportunities, language policy, curriculum guidelines, and availability of
instructional resources are all factors that influence decisions regarding pronunciation
instruction.

TEACHER PREPARATION
English-language departments at international universities frequently emphasize literature
over linguistics and pedagogy, even when preparing future schoolteachers. Without a basic
knowledge of linguistics, teachers are unlikely to have a solid grounding in the sound system
of English. Without pedagogical training, teachers are likely to resort to a lecture mode
rather than the interactive participation needed to enable students to acquire oral skills. Par-

ticularly in an EFL context, teachers can be insecure about their pronunciation if they have
not had adequate opportunity to address this skill in their own teacher-preparation program.
Murphy (1997) surveyed instructors from 70 MA in TESOL programs in the United
States that offer teacher preparation in phonology. Based on his research, he concluded that
 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 281

Type of learners A speaking situation Example of language Pronunciation

these learners might these learners might priorities based on
face use in this situation learners’ speaking
needs

Recent immigrants Explaining past work Iworked for three • Prominence and
seeking employment history during a job years / as an office intonation
interview manager. • Rhythm and linking
• -ed and -s endings

ESL students in a Participating in a class Well, in my opinion . . .

• Prominence and
speaking class discussion and stating / 'm not sure 1 agree intonation
/
opinions with that.
• Rhythm and linking

International gradu- Giving instructions to The first thing you • Prominence and
ate teaching assis- students during a lab want to do / is fill intonation
tants in a chemistry experiment it with water / and • Rhythm and linking
department leave about an inch • Reduced speech
of space / at the top, /

OK?

Figure 7.1 Tailoring pronunciation instruction to a specific group of learners based on

the language they need to use

preparation is enriched by the following opportunities: to engage in real teaching or tutoring

experiences while studying phonology; to develop and make use of narratives written by both
teachers and learners of pronunciation documenting their experiences; to receive training in
instructional technology as it relates to the teaching of pronunciation; to relate pronunciation

teaching to current advances in language-teaching methodology; and to prepare teachers to

investigate their learners’ actual speech intelligibility needs.

NATIONAL LANGUAGE POLICY

National language policy can influence many facets of language instruction and even societal
attitudes toward the language itself. In many countries, English-language instruction begins
in elementary school, but the number of hours devoted to it can vary widely. If a centralized

Ministry of Education determines both the curriculum and materials for English-language
instruction, there might be little or no flexibility to address speaking and pronunciation,
which are typically not nearly as high a priority as grammar and reading. National language
policy also strongly influences the types of language examinations that are administered.
If the examinations are written and grammar-based, then it is likely that those skills will

be the center of language instruction.

CURRICULUM AND MATERIALS

Usually, teachers must balance the needs of their students within a somewhat fixed cur-
riculum. If this is the case, pronunciation is not always explicitly included even in a speaking

course, and teachers need to find ways to integrate pronunciation into existing curricu-
lum and textbook materials. (See Appendix 11, Integrating Pronunciation into a Textbook
282 Issues in Implementation

Speaking Activity, and Part IV, Intersections of the Sound System with Other Areas of
Language.) The choice of textbook also influences the decision regarding which variety or
varieties of English will be the model; if the available or mandated textbooks and CDs are
all based on Received Pronunciation, then the busy teacher is likely to use these materials
as the classroom models. Some textbooks acknowledge that learners need to be familiar
with a range of accents, and they provide a variety of dialect models in their published
materials, but many do not.

AVAILABILITY OF INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES

Particularly with oral skills and pronunciation, the teacher needs to find ways to record
learners’ voices and provide listening models both in and outside of class. The lack of
instructional technology (e.g., digital recording and playback equipment, a language labora-
tory, a computer laboratory, access to the Internet) will limit the choices teachers have to
support their teaching of pronunciation. The availability of tutoring services can also affect
the kinds of out-of-class exercises the teacher assigns. (See Chapter 9 for more guidance
regarding instructional resources, especially technology.)

CLASS SIZE AND TIME ALLOTMENT

One of the factors which has the greatest effect on classroom instruction is simply the
number of students per class. Obviously a group of six learners will receive much more
individualized attention and feedback than a class of 60 or 70. We also need to consider
how many hours per week are allotted to instruction. Are you teaching an oral-skills class
where pronunciation is integrated into every lesson or perhaps a multi-skills class where
%
only a small percentage of class time is devoted to pronunciation? Ideally, the most effective
way of teaching pronunciation is to integrate it with skills such as listening, speaking, or
grammar, or into a content-based or English for Specific Purposes course. (See Chapter 10
for integration with listening and Chapter 1 1 for integration with grammar and morphology.)

Defining a Core Curriculum, or How Not to

Teach Everything
At one time, the aim of pronunciation instruction was to teach the entire sound system.
The major goal of this chapter, however, is to help teachers understand the importance of
setting realistic and limited goals, focusing on the targeted communicative needs of their
learners, not the language as a whole. No pronunciation course can teach everything. Even in
a single-skills course devoted to pronunciation, certain items must be prioritized (see Firth
1992b for further discussion). A scaled-down set of teaching priorities enables both teachers
and learners to address a more manageable set of goals, based not on the entire phonology
of English but rather on those features found to be essential for intelligible pronunciation.
Jenner (1989) was one of the first to call for this, using the term common core to describe
the elements of intelligibility common to native speakers of all varieties of English. Other
researchers and practitioners have taken Jenner’s groundbreaking idea and modified it,

depending on the learner and the context.

 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 283

GILBERT’S PRIORITIES FOR BEGINNING LEARNERS

Gilbert (2001a, 2001b, 2006) targets the needs of beginning learners of English. She
emphasizes that pronunciation instruction should be integrated right from the start to avoid

fossilized pronunciation that will modify later on. An overview of her

become harder to
priorities for beginners includes these seven items (see Appendix 12 for an elaboration of
these priorities):

1 . A set of core vowels with a focus on sound-spelling correspondences

2. Consonants that serve as grammatical signals
3. Linking between words
4. The number of syllables (i.e., the importance of not inserting or omitting
syllables)

5. Word stress and the importance of distinguishing strong and weak syllables
6. Prominence (Gilbert uses an alternative term, emphasis)

7. Thought grouping

JENKINS’S LINGUA FRANCA CORE

Jenkins (2000, 2006) researched interactions between nonnative speakers and created a list

of pronunciation priorities called the Lingua Franca Core (LFC). She found five pronuncia-

tion features to be crucial for learners who need English for international intelligibility, that

is, primarily to communicate with another nonnative speaker (see Appendix 13 for a closer
look at the Lingua Franca Core):

1 . Consonants except /0, d / and velarized, or dark, [f]

2. Certain positional variation features, such as aspiration and vowel lengthening

3. Consonant cluster features (e.g., in which environments sounds can be deleted

and in which environments they may not)

4. Tense-lax vowel distinctions (Jenkins uses the terminology long-short contrast)

5. Prominence (Jenkins uses the term nuclear stress)

ZIELINSKI’S PRIORITIES FOR NS-NNS COMMUNICATION

Whereas Jenkins researched miscommunication between two nonnative speakers, Zielinski
(2008) wanted to find out specifically which factors make it hard for native English speak-
6
ers to understand nonnative-speaker speech. She found that two things contribute most to
7
intelligibility: accurate word stress and accurate production of the sounds in the stressed

syllables. Furthermore, because native listeners rely on both the word-stress patterns and
the sounds in the speech signal, the interaction between the two is important, so it makes
little sense for the learner to focus on just the production of sounds or just the production of
word stress patterns. Special attention needs to be given to the accuracy of segments within
strong syllables as they provide a source of information upon which native listeners depend.
Attention also has to be given to ensuring that stressed syllables are produced in a way that

unambiguously differentiates them as strong from the other syllables around them (p. 82).

6
The first languages of the nonnative speakers in Zielinski’s study were Vietnamese, Korean, and Mandarin.
7
Zielinski uses the label syllable stress.
Issues in Implementation

In short, Zielinski recommends focusing pronunciation instruction on strongly stressed

syllables - both by articulating the sounds in those syllables accurately and by making those
syllables stand out clearly from the unstressed syllables surrounding them.
The examples and findings from Gilbert, Jenkins, and Zielinski illustrate two important
points we wish to make about curriculum design: First, we need to prioritize our teaching
points to create a manageable load; and second, we need to do this with our learners and
their context in mind. We now present an overall approach to designing pronunciation
instruction for a particular group of learners.

Designing Pronunciation Instruction for

a Specific Group of Learners
As we move away from the unrealistic expectation of native-speaker perfection, it is useful
to remember that our goal is not to help learners speak perfectly but rather to help them
interact successfully in English. In other words, can learners express themselves in the com-
municative situations they face - and can listeners understand them easily? This perspective
allows us to design instruction in a much more targeted and manageable way than in the

traditional pronunciation classroom. When the instructor has the opportunity and flexibility
to tailor instruction to a specific group of learners, how should we go about it? Here are
some steps to guide the teacher of pronunciation.

Step One: Find out who your learners are and what they need
Earlier in this chapter, we discussed the importance of learner variables, such as native
language, exposure to the target language, prior pronunciation instruction, and motivation.
Contrastive analyses of different languages with regard to English highlight specific dif-
ficulties for learners of a particular LI (see Swan and Smith 2001, Avery and Ehrlich 1992,
Kenworthy 1987, Hirst and DiCristo To find out more about learners’ background
1998).
and goals - especially in a multilingual classroom - we recommend that teachers carry out
a formal or informal needs analysis before instruction begins. Even experienced pronuncia-
tion teachers can use such information to fine-tune and tailor their teaching to their current

learners. Appendix 14 presents a sample student questionnaire that has been used to obtain

information about learners in a university-level ESL pronunciation course. The more we

know about our learners, the better we can address their needs.

Step Two: Find language that is relevant to your learners to use as

practice material
As we have mentioned before, learners are motivated by practicing with language that is

useful or meaningful to them. (We have included some sources of authentic language in
Appendix 15.) For example, if you were teaching a group of nursing students, you might use
a dialogue like the following (Barrerre 2007, 1 17), which is a transcript of a real interaction
8
between a nurse and a patient:

RN = Registered nurse
PT = Patient
1 . RN: How was your night? I heard you didn’t sleep much.
2. PT: No. For not doing anything, I am pretty tired.

8
The article containing this transcript was retrieved from the Web following a search for “nurse-patient
discourse.”
 .

Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 285

3. RN: Yeah?
4. PT: A long night.
5. RN: Are you bringing up any sputum?
6. PT: I did . .

7. RN: And they gave you a treatment before you. Yeah.

You coughing otherwise?
8. PT: Not really.

9. RN: No, huh?

10. PT: Kind of dry. That’s why they gave me something.

Not surprisingly, this interaction consists mostly of the nurse asking questions and the
patient responding to them. Some of the nurse’s questions introduce new topics (e.g., line 1

“your night” and line 5 “sputum”) whereas others elicit further elaboration of the patient’s
condition (line 3 “Yeah?” and line 9 “No, huh?”). Understanding this basic conversational
framework of question and response allows both the teacher and learner to focus on short,
repeated patterns of language, not just the particular words in this example. We’ll look at
choosing the pronunciation features to target in our next step.

Step Three: Use these samples of authentic language to illustrate and

practice specific pronunciation features
After locating samples of authentic language, teachers can decide which pronunciation
features to address. By integrating our pronunciation instruction into out students’ preferred
speaking situations, we help them attain the functional communicability that Morley (1999)
describes as a realistic goal. Moreover, if a sound recording is available to accompany the
transcript or text, it provides a valuable opportunity for learners to work on perception skills.

Let’s look again at the transcript of the nurse-patient interaction from the previous
step (Barrerre 2007, 11). Initially, it can be used to practice the global features of pausing,
9
prominence, and intonation (marked in the transcript that follows). As mentioned, the inter-

action contains a string of questions by the nurse and responses by the patient. Since this is

authentic language, speakers occasionally leave thoughts unfinished (gave you a treatment
before you . .
.), use filler expressions while they’re thinking (yeah), or use abbreviated
forms ([are] you coughing otherwise?) These authentic features mean that pauses occur
even where we might not predict them.

RN = Registered nurse
PT = Patient

1. RN:

2. PT:

3. RN:

9
The prominence, intonation, and linking shown in the nurse-patient transcript are approximate - we do not
have access to the original recording.
286 Issues in Implementation

6. PT:

7. RN: ey gave you w a TREATmerrUieliine-yeu, / yeab. /

What other pronunciation features might be addressed in this language sample? Depend-
ing on the learners’ LI or the results of a diagnostic assessment (which could be as simple
as having learners read the transcript aloud before working with it), the teacher could use
this nurse-patient transcript to focus on:

1 . Connected speech

a. Consonant-plus-vowel linking: (e.g., bringing^up, up^any, kind^of)

b. Vowel-plus-vowel linking (e.g., you™ a)
c. Stop-plus-consonant linking (e.g., not^doing, treat^jnent, not^really)
d. Assimilation (e.g., xvas^your, heard^you)

2. Final consonants, focusing on how the final closure or friction feels at the end of
the syllable, for example, night (feel the tongue touch the alveolar ridge), sleep
(feel lips come together), and much (feel the closure and then the friction as air
is forced out between the tongue and alveolar ridge).

3. The pronunciation of new vocabulary or technical terms. In the nurse-patient

text, the NAE pronunciation of the term sputum contains a consonant cluster,
a tense vowel in the stressed syllable, and a flap /r/ /spyuwrom/. 10

This number of pronunciation features may seem like a great deal to cover, but they do
not need to be covered all at once or only once. The same features found in one example of
spoken text can and should be recycled with subsequent examples. Our goal is to provide
learners with the language they need - short, targeted chunks of it, both in stretches of
discourse and commonly used phrases. Then we make sure they know how to say it. By
giving learners the kind of information about the spoken language they need, we target our
instruction and heighten learners’ awareness and confidence. Appendix 11 contains two
additional examples illustrating how pronunciation can be integrated into the language
needed for a speaking situation. Both examples are from ESL or EFL textbooks, one focus-
ing on business and the other on conversation skills.

Step Four: Provide frequent and sustained choral repetition with

body movement
A longstanding tool of the pronunciation teacher, choral repetition is a necessary technique
to promote automaticity, enabling learners to produce intelligible chunks of language without

10
A sound file for the word sputum can be found at the Merriam-Webster online dictionary at [Link]-
[Link]/dictionary/sputum.
 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 287

conscious thought. Have learners repeat in thought groups of no more than six or seven
words (e.g., How was you r night? or heard you didn't sleep much). Practice each thought
/

group numerous times. Ideally, this choral practice should be accompanied by some gesture
or body movement, for example, stepping, tapping, or clapping on each stressed syllable, or
standing up for a rise in pitch (Acton 1984, Isaac 1995, Chan 2001). Choral repetition allows
the learner to focus on accuracy before moving on to less-controlled activities requiring

more choice.

Step Five: Give learners a chance to practice similar language in

less-controlled activities
After providing substantial choral repetition practice, the teacher can move to a less con-

trolled activity. In Figure 7.2, we see a worksheet for a pair activity in which students
create a three-line dialogue by choosing one phrase from each column (left to right). The
pronunciation focus of this activity is rising and rising-falling intonation.

Directions: Work in pairs to create four three-line dialogues by choosing one

phrase from each column (1, 2, 3). Choose your responses in columns 2 and
3 carefully - more than one option is possible, but not every choice makes
sense. Pay attention to the intonation of each line - is it rising or rising-
falling?

Example dialogue:

PartnefA: How^waTyouTnigl^?

Partner B: NtStlJac^

Partner A: ThatVgood^

1. Nurse’s opening question 2. Patient’s 3. Nurse’s follow-up

reply response

How are you sleeping? Um-hmm. Oh, really?

How was your night? Not bad. No, huh?

Are you feeling better today? Not really. Hmm. What’s going on?

[Do you] still have that headache? Not so good. That’s good.

Figure 7.2 Worksheet for guided practice activity: Nurse-patient dialogue

At a later stage, students can perform a communicative activity such as a cued dialogue,
simulation, or role play. An example of a role-play prompt for a nurse-patient interaction
might read like this:

Nurse role card: Ask how the patient is doing. Ask specific follow-up questions
about the patient’s cough, sleep patterns, and medication.

Patient role card: Respond when the nurse asks you how you are feeling. When
she asks specific questions, provide details.

By rehearsing the spoken interactions that will help them outside of class, learners gain
confidence and become more motivated to learn.
288 Issues in Implementation

Step Six: Record learners* speech for feedback and review

It is important that learners have an opportunity to evaluate their own speech and to moni-
tor themselves for the features being practiced. By recording learners’ speech in audio or,
preferably video, you give them a valuable tool for self-reflection. Recordings also allow
learners to view progress over time. Although this is perhaps not feasible in a large class or

without the necessary technology, it is important to find ways for learners to be able to match
their production to a model and to receive feedback on the accuracy of their pronunciation.
(See Chapter 9 for more information on using technology in pronunciation instruction.)
Tailoring pronunciation instruction to a particular group of learners can be a challeng-
ing process. We need to figure out what our learners need, find appropriate language and
contexts for practice, set up increasingly communicative activities, include body movement,
provide feedback, and, if possible, give learners an opportunity to review their spoken
language through recordings. These are principles that hold true for speaking instruction
in general. If we look at pronunciation instruction as just one part of communication as a
whole, we see that following these principles will motivate learners while giving them the
tools they need to succeed.

Case Studies
Now that we have provided an overview of how to address pronunciation instruction, let’s
look at some specific examples to illustrate the decision-making process as it is carried out
in a variety of contexts:

1 . The one-on-one instruction of a Japanese businessman in Japan

2. A beginning-level course for middle-school students in Italy

3. An evening adult course for low-level immigrant students in a U.S. urban area
4. A course for international teaching assistants in a mathematics department at

a U.S. university

5. A summer in-service teacher education course in Canada for Egyptian teachers

of English

6. An intensive on-site training course for call-center agents in India

Each case study is organized as follows: First, we briefly describe the learner and
the teaching context. Next, we list the targeted pronunciation goals." These are followed
by a discussion of how specific pronunciation teaching points in the syllabus are chosen,
sequenced, and presented, including a sample of an activity or teaching material one could
use in the given context. Finally, we discuss the application of the case study to other
contexts.

CASE STUDY I: ONE-ON-ONE INSTRUCTION OF A JAPANESE

BUSINESS EXECUTIVE
Learner
The client, a 42-year-old business executive involved in marketing for an international elec-
tronics company, is receiving private tutoring at his company in Japan because his work

11
In some cases pronunciation not the sole goal of the course described in these case studies. However, since
is

our focus is on which pronunciation goals to prioritize, we are not concerned with the overall course goals
and thus have not included these in the discussion.
 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 289

involves frequent use of English both with native speakers and as a lingua franca with
businesspeople from other parts of the world. He learned English at school and has traveled
extensively to the United States and Australia. His English is at a high-intermediate level
and relatively fluent, with a strong Japanese accent.

Teaching context
The tutor, who has a certificate in Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL), is a
native speaker of NAE teaching in Japan. The tutoring session is scheduled once a week
fortwo hours and both audio- and videorecording facilities are available. The content and
materials are flexible and address the ongoing needs of the learner. Pronunciation is inte-
grated into speaking practice and is often manifested as feedback and correction exercises.

Goals of instruction
1 . To use discourse-appropriate prominence and intonation patterns both in face-

to-face interactions and over the telephone

2. To apply common word-stress patterns to business and marketing terms, making

a clear distinction between stressed and unstressed syllables

3. To link syllables together smoothly without inserting a vowel inside consonant

clusters

4. To gain conscious control over specific vowel and consonant substitution

patterns

Selection ofteaching points

The teaching points were selected after a preliminary interview with the client, which was
recorded. This diagnostic speech sample was evaluated in light of a contrastive analysis
of the sound systems of Japanese and English. Routine discourse functions that the client
needs to perform for his job (and that he noted during the interview) were prioritized for
presentation and practice. Additional information was obtained via observations or record-
ings of the client at his job site interacting with English speakers.

Sequencing of teaching points

Since this is a one-on-one instructional situation dependent upon the learner’s needs, there
is no prescribed sequence of instruction. Although the tutor formulated a general plan of
action to follow with the client based on the initial interview, much of the specific practice
occurs as a result of what happens in the individual tutoring sessions. Because Japanese is

more of a syllable-timed language than English, high priority is given to working on rhythm
and stress. Time is also spent on vowel reduction and on the more highly differentiated vowel
system of English (as opposed to the five -vowel system of Japanese). Finally, attention is
also given to consonant clusters and specific consonant sounds that the client has difficulty
articulating (e.g., /I, r, f, v, b / and initial /h/). Figure 7.3 shows how pronunciation can be
integrated into the overall course of study.

Delivery of instruction
As stated earlier, pronunciation is integrated into the communicative functions covered in

each session. A brief explanation of the pronunciation feature (often accompanied by drill

and practice using supplementary text materials) is followed by an application activity, such
as a role play in which the client is asked to meet a potential business partner (played by
the tutor) for the first time, describe a product to this potential “buyer,” negotiate a deal,
and so forth. These simulations are filmed and the teacher provides feedback afterwards.
 /

290 Issues in Implementation

Language Sample language Pronunciation teaching

communicative points
function

Social language lo you doj? Intonation and prominence,

rhythm, linking, vowels,
have you bee\? and vowel reduction

was your flight^

risls my colleague, Dayid Williams.

Business price list, shipping costs, Word stress, consonant

terminology installation, competitive, clusters containing /r/ or /l/,

electric, electricity, electronic, electronically sound distinctions: /l/, /r/,

/b/, /v/, /f/, /h/, /ae/, /a/

Describing and ttave-you4xiedJhis product before? Prominence and intonation,

presenting a rhythm, linking, vowels,
product iave you heard &bout it ?
and vowel reduction

le best\hing about iUs

v
Negotiation We ^aiTagree
r
to4hat / i Thought groups and promi-
nence, rhythm, intonation in
nonfinal and final clauses,
contrastive emphasis
)out four percent

B: SbTpercer^^

Figure 7.3 Overview of pronunciation teaching points for a Japanese business executive

Frequent recycling of previously practiced items and on-the-spot correction (followed by

additional drill) occur.

Sample activity: Negotiating a good price

The cued dialogue exercise in Figure 7.4 (Sweeney 2000a, 136) works on the language of
negotiation, in particular accepting and confirming. The Japanese business client performs
the cued dialogue with the tutor, and it is recorded.
The next step is for the tutor and client to listen to the recording of the cued dialogue
together and compare it to the one the book provides as a model (Sweeney 2000b, 109-1 10):

Ojanpera: Well, we’re happy to buy a machine if you can give us a good price.
Beck: Well, I’m sure we can. As you know our prices are very competitive.
Ojanpera: Even so, I'm sure you can allow us a discount?
Beck: OK, well a discount could be possible if you agree to pay for the
shipping costs.
Ojanpera: That sounds OK, if the discount is a good one.
Beck: How about 4 percent?
 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 291

Directions: You and a partner are representatives of Beck Instruments and

Ojanpera Inc., a machine-tool maker. Ojanpera is in discussion with Beck
Instruments to buy a machine, the B125. Use the flow chart below to negotiate
some aspects of an agreement for the sale of the B125.

Ojanpera Beck Instruments

Offer to buy the machine if BI
can give you a good price.
Say that your prices are
very competitive.
Ask for a discount.
Say a discount could be possible
if Ojanpera agrees to pay for
shipping costs.
Agree, if the discount is attractive.

Offer 4% discount.
Ask for 6%.
Unfortunately, you can’t agree, unless
Ojanpera pays for the installation.

Agree.
Confirm your agreement.

Figure 7.4 Cued dialogue: Negotiating a good price (Adapted from Sweeney 2000a, 136)

Ojanpera: Six percent would be better.

Beck: I'm sorry, we can’t manage that unless you pay for installation.

Ojanpera: OK, our engineers will take care of that.

Beck: OK, then, so to confirm: a 6 percent discount but you pay all the
shipping and installation costs.
Ojanpera: That sounds all right.

As mentioned in the overview in Figure 7.3, the pronunciation features that the tutor
should be listening for include pausing, rhythm, contrastive stress, and intonation in nonfinal

and final clauses. Additional teaching points depend on the learner’s performance.

Application to other teaching contexts

Every one-on-one instructional situation is unique in the sense that it depends on the client’s

needs and interests. It is the responsibility of the tutor to raise the client’s consciousness
about his or her language patterns and to provide a forum for practice that relates to the cli-

ent’s personal (social, occupational/professional) experiences. The needs analysis procedure

is critical in assisting the tutor to determine the tutoring agenda. Once needs have been
determined, the material covered and the tasks assigned should be tailored to reflect these
real-life needs.

CASE STUDY 2: ITALIAN MIDDLE-SCHOOL STUDENTS

Learners
This is a beginning-level class of 35 twelve -year-olds in an Italian middle school. They
come from a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds, and although some will eventually go
Issues in Implementation

on to university, they have not yet been streamed into one of the many types of secondary
schools common in the European system. Exposure to English is predominantly through
mass media and tourists, although some students have visited England on family vacations.
Since many of them speak a regional dialect of Italian at home but standard Italian at school,
they are somewhat familiar with language differences. Their need for English and intelligible

pronunciation is relatively low at this point. Motivation varies widely - for some, English is

simply a required school subject; for others, high marks are essential in all subjects to gain
admission to the desired secondary school and university; for yet others, English is a useful
tool for future travel or study abroad.

Teaching context
This English class meets four hours a week; approximately half an hour per week is devoted
to integrated pronunciation teaching. The class is taught by an Italian teacher whose uni-
versity study of English focused primarily on literature, not on language and linguistics.

However, the teacher has spent several summers in Great Britain and has attended in-

service training programs offered by the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction. Although
somewhat uncomfortable teaching pronunciation, she has integrated
the instructor feels it

into the standardized curriculum, which favors a communicative approach. The school is

equipped with a computer lab.

Goals of instruction
1 . To increase comprehension of spoken English by understanding the basic rules
of stress, intonation, and reduced speech

2. To develop appropriate intonation and stress patterns in everyday communica-

tion in English

3. To understand the main differences in consonant and vowel production between

Italian and English
4. To improve the ability to monitor one's own speech when focusing on form

Selection of teaching points

The selection of teaching points is determined primarily by two factors: (1) the prescribed

curriculum and textbook for these students and (2) a contrastive analysis of the Italian and
English sound systems. Areas of anticipated difficulty include vowel reduction, vowel length,
final consonants, consonant clusters, linking, word stress, rhythm, sentence prominence, and
The class uses a beginning-level multi-skills textbook that focuses
basic intonation patterns.
on communicative fluency. Each unit contains a list of useful phrases and several dialogues.

Sequencing of teaching points

Since the textbook is organized according to communicative functions, pronunciation les-

sons are adapted to these materials and sequenced accordingly. Figure 7.5 shows a sample
of the communicative functions covered in the textbook, examples of language, and the
corresponding pronunciation teaching points.

Delivery of instruction
Teaching points are derived from the content of each lesson. To help students focus on the
mouth movements, the teacher uses a sock puppet. Students first listen to the dialogues and
phrases for meaning before focusing on pronunciation. The teacher either highlights the
point (e.g., stressed words, higher pitch, rising or falling intonation patterns) or elicits it from
the students. The teacher helps learners to feel the pronunciation by having them tap on the
 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 293

Communicative Sample language Pronunciation teaching points

function

Greetings and areii<\. Intonation in short statements;

introductions linking without inserting /o/
GeOifmomk\g. between syllables; rhythm, vowels

Mym3me~is \.

Requesting personal Ho\v^reyoi)(? Intonation in w/7-questions and

information echo questions; prominence;
FtTTfin^Iiaiik^ linking; /h/ deletion

Ajid^y?

Identifying classroom What’s this? Word stress with special focus

objects What’s that? on compound nouns; linking (in
It’s a notebook. particular, avoiding the insertion
It’s a blackboard. of /a/)

Describing people She’s my sister. -5 endings; linking; rhythm; /iy/

r
Her name’s Anna. versus /i/; /3 /; addition or deletion
She’s a student. of/h/
# Her hair is blond.
Her eyes are green.

Figure 7.5 Overview of pronunciation teaching points for Italian middle-school learners

desk for stress and rhythm, use sweeping hand gestures for intonation, and stretch a rubber
band apart for vowel length in stressed syllables. In addition, students add pronunciation
markings to the dialogues and phrases in their text by circling stressed syllables, drawing
intonation contours, connecting linked words, drawing a line through reduced vowels, and
so forth. Students work through the dialogues with a partner and sometimes perform a
“cocktail” activity where they all stand up and move around the class performing the same
dialogue with multiple partners. The teacher includes games such as Bingo, Hangman, and
Dominoes to practice various pronunciation features. Fluency is balanced with accuracy in

pronunciation, and feedback is given not only on grammatical errors but on pronunciation
errors as well.

Sample activity: Describing people

On the CD are four excerpts (CD2 tracks 2-5) from an actual middle-school lesson in Italy
12
(Lubelska and Matthews 1997). The students are practicing describing people. In the first

excerpt (CD2 track 2), the teacher passes out a worksheet with a grid on it for recording

personal information such as name, age, and nationality. Then, one student at a time receives

a role card and reads off the information for the rest of the students to record on their grids.

The teacher makes an audio recording of the activity to use later in the lesson for feedback.

12
Although we provide only audio excerpts here, the original lesson is on video and is part of a video series.
Looking at language classrooms. The transcript for these clips can be found on pages 150-152 of the trainer’s
guide that accompanies the video.
 /

294 Issues in Implementation

Since this is a beginner class, she uses both English and Italian for classroom management
as she builds students’ understanding of instructions in English. The second and third
excerpts (CD2 tracks 3 and 4) are individual learners reading their role cards, whereas the
fourth (CD2 track 5) is an example of the teacher playing back the audio recording she made
in class and debriefing with learners on their speaking and pronunciation, making use of
self- and peer feedback as well as providing her own comments.

Application to other teaching contexts

European public schools share a similar approach to foreign-language education. Very often,
since the textbooks are selected at a regional or national level, the teacher may have to adapt

the required textbook to include a pronunciation component. The communicative approach is

widespread, and there has been a strong emphasis on fluency rather than accuracy; however,
as this case study illustrates, speaking activities can easily include a focus on pronunciation
in order to achieve both fluency and intelligibility. (See Appendix 11 for two examples
showing how pronunciation can be integrated into a textbook speaking activity.)

CASE STUDY 3: LOW-LEVEL ADULT IMMIGRANT STUDENTS WITH EMERGING

LITERACY SKILLS
Learners
This study concerns an ESL literacy class offered to a group of low-level learners in a large

urban center in the United States. Linguistically and culturally the class is mixed; most
students are Spanish-speaking from Mexico or Central America (although at home some
may speak one of the indigenous languages of the region). Some of the students are not
currently employed. A smaller percentage of the students are first-language Hmong speakers
from Southeast Asia. Both groups of students are recent arrivals in the United States. None t

has first-language literacy skills; literacy in English is just emerging, with some students
already familiar with the alphabet and able to read familiar words and others still learning
the alphabet. A few have no literacy in English at all. The Hmong speakers have had some
prior instruction in English in a refugee camp during their transition to the United States.
Pronunciation instruction was limited to “listen and repeat.” Language aptitude in this group
is mixed; their learning style (because of lack of prior literacy training) is heavily dependent
on the aural-oral mode. Although surrounded by English, many of the learners live and
or work in neighborhoods where English is not the primary language. Nonetheless, their
desire to learn English is strong and instrumentally motivated: They want to find jobs that
enable them to live decently, and they view improved English-language skills as an avenue
to achieving this goal.

Teaching context
The context for this class is a government-funded adult education program. The class, vary-

ing in size from 25 40 on any given evening, takes place on

to a high-school campus four
days a week for two-and-a-half hours. Because of the funding, the program is open-entry,
open-exit; as a result, the student population is somewhat unstable, with some students
attending class much longer than others. The focus of the curriculum is on providing students
with a combination of life skills (e.g., housing., transportation) and basic (linguistic) skills.
The methodology is whole-language-oriented, with most of the activities revolving around
the students’ lives and their needs. The teacher is certified to teach adult education and has
a certificate in TESL. The reading materials are primarily student-produced, in keeping
with the whole-language approach. The teacher supplements this with authentic materials.
 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 295

Goals of instruction
1 . To pronounce numbers and letters of the alphabet and to give and spell personal
information (e.g., address, telephone number, first and last name) intelligibly

2. To distinguish and produce selected vowel and consonant distinctions when

reading at the word level (especially if this ability is impeded by the student’s
first-language background)

3. To produce both initial and final consonant clusters intelligibly when reading
at the word level (especially clusters with /l/ and Irl and final clusters with /s/

or /z/)

4. To apply linking when reading at the phrase or sentence level

5. To apply appropriate rising or rising-falling intonation when reading aloud

stretches of connected discourse

Selection of teaching points

Because of the whole-language emphasis in the curriculum, no predetermined pronuncia-
tion agenda can be set. Reading materials consist of texts that evolve from the learners’
life experiences and are initially dictated to the teacher and copied by the students. These
materials comprise the course “reader.”
Although there is relatively little overt emphasis on pronunciation in the teaching
materials themselves, pronunciation skills are nonetheless deemed important in this early

language-learning experience. Items to be taught are selected based on an error analysis

of the learners’ output; correction is usually on the spot, with the focus on intelligibility
rather than accuracy. Because of the literacy focus, pronunciation of segmental contrasts is

highlighted for word-reading skills. Suprasegmental features such as intonation and blending
also play a large role when students read their literacy materials aloud.

Sequencing of teaching points

The sequencing of items to be taught is primarily decided via the teacher’s analysis of
students’ reading miscues. Thus no specific arrangement of pronunciation items is spelled
out in the curriculum. In general, however, since word-reading practice precedes sentence-
reading practice, it is clear that work on segmental contrasts and consonant clusters precedes
work on linking and intonation.

Delivery of instruction
For each reading passage, the teacher and students collaboratively create a “word bank” of
the new key words in the text. Using this word bank, the teacher focuses on the segmental
contrasts that students are having difficulty producing. This is achieved by the teacher point-
ing to the articulators (e.g., the lips and teeth when demonstrating the difference between
/b / and /v/), by using simple drawings on the board (e.g., the lip positions for /iy/ and /i/), or
by using rubber bands to indicate vowel length. This descriptive stage is followed by choral,
then individual “listen and repeat" practice. Students often write the key words on index
cards and practice reading them in pairs as the teacher circulates and provides feedback
(including individualized pronunciation work).
The reading texts themselves are initially written by the teacher on large pieces of
butcher paper. After reading this text aloud as a model and highlighting the pronunciation
of difficult words, the teacher has the students read the text chorally, phrase by phrase. It

is at this point that work on linking and intonation occurs. The teacher uses a pointer to

indicate linking between words, and sometimes hums the melody or employs a kazoo to
296 Issues in Implementation

illustrate the intonation patterns of selected phrases. Sentence rhythm and prominence are
emphasized by clapping or tapping out the rhythm on the desk.

Sample teaching material: At the Pharmacy dialogue

One of the situations an adult immigrant learner might face is picking up medication at a
pharmacy. In addition to being a situation in which correct understanding and pronuncia-
tion is crucial, the following dialogue between a pharmacist (P) and a customer (C) gives
learners practice in pronouncing the spelling of their name and their street address in a
natural context. Nonetheless, the teacher should be sensitive to the fact that some learners
might choose not to provide personal information in a classroom setting. If they are, the

dialogue can be read as presented or with another common surname reflecting the ethnicity
of learners in the class.

At the Pharmacy
P: May I help you?
C: I'm here to pick up a prescription for Martinez.
P: What's the name again?
C: [repeats name and spells it] Martinez, M-A-R-T-I-N-E-Z.
P: Are you still at (street address)?

C: Yes.
P: Just a minute while I get your prescription [returns with the bottle]. You have
to sign right here.

C: OK. [customer signs form]

P: You need to take this three times a day after meals, OK?
C: Yes, I've taken it before.
P: OK, but call us if you notice anything different.
C: OK, thank you.
P: Have a good day.

Application to other teaching contexts

This teaching agenda is equally applicable to other kinds of literacy courses, such as migrant
farmworker projects, workplace literacy, or parent literacy programs. In such cases, however,
the learner populations share a need that more defined. Thus, the materials chosen should
is

relate more specifically to either the learners’ immediate environment (in the agricultural

domain or factory workplace) or to the children’s course of study at school and the parents’
need to communicate with teachers (in parent literacy programs).

CASE STUDY 4: INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICS TEACHING ASSISTANTS

Learners
A group of 12 Chinese and South Korean graduate students in their twenties and thirties

are international teaching assistants (ITAs) at a U.S. university.

1
'
They are from the Depart-
ment of Mathematics and have a low-intermediate to high-intermediate level of English
proficiency. In their native countries, they generally learned English at school and had
little or no contact with American speakers before coming to the United States. None has

13
Excellent sources to consult for the design of ITA courses are Bauer (1991), Madden and Myers (1994), and
Ross and Dunphy (2007).
 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 297

had a course in pronunciation, but several students were taught the International Phonetic
Alphabet. Language aptitude and learning style vary, and only a few have had any instruc-
tion in a second language besides English. Their literacy level is quite high and, as teaching
assistants of American undergraduates, their need for intelligible pronunciation is great.
However, since this oral skills class is required, their initial motivation is somewhat lacking.

Teaching context
Pronunciation is one component of this four-week summer course conducted on campus
by a lecturer in TESL trained in teaching pronunciation. The other components include
presentation skills and the culture of the American classroom. Students meet 10 hours per
week (2 hours each weekday). The instructor has access to a digital video camcorder, a
computer lab, and a supplementary course Web site.

Goals of instruction
1 . To make effective use of the pronunciation key in a standard English-English
learners’ dictionary

2. To analyze and develop appropriate intonation and stress patterns for typical
classroom discourse in mathematics (solving problems at the board)

3. To increase comprehension of American undergraduate speech

4. To understand common word-stress patterns and apply these to mathematical
terms
5. To improve consonant and vowel production targeting individual areas of
difficulty

6. To develop a personal plan for improvement beyond this course using available
lab and tutoring facilities on the campus

Selection of teaching points

The selection of teaching points is based on the initial diagnostic speech samples of these 12
students and videotaped models of spoken discourse in mathematics problem-solving ses-
sions. Topics to be covered include basic mathematics terminology and the language needed
to explain a concept, solve a problem at the board, and get students to participate in class.

Sequencing of teaching points

Initially, students record a diagnostic sample that the instructor uses to prioritize teaching
[Link] points might include a review of the phonemic alphabet, some basic articula-
tory information about how sounds are produced, and practice using the pronunciation key
in a dictionary. Figure 7.6 gives an overview of the language that would likely be covered
in a course for mathematics TAs.

Delivery of instruction
Pronunciation teaching materials are derived from videorecorded examples of native-
speaking mathematics teaching assistants (TAs) leading problem-solving sessions. First,

the videorecorded excerpts are presented as listening comprehension practice. Next, written
transcripts of the excerpts are used to analyze the real language that TAs use in the class-

room, to observe their interaction with undergraduates, and to focus attention on specific
pronunciation points. Students practice these points in class in paired dialogues and small-
group role plays. Outside of class, students use the transcripts for reading-aloud practice by
recording them onto sound files, which are responded to by the instructor. Finally, teaching
298 Issues in Implementation

Language / commu- Sample language Pronunciation

nicative function teaching points

Mathematical Linear function Quality of stressed

terminology Polar derivative formula vowels, word stress,
Differential equation vowel length, vowel
Binomial coefficient reduction, consonant
Transitive property of equality clusters

Explaining a concept The square of the hypotenuse is Thought groups

equal to the sum of the squares and prominence,
of the other two sides. intonation, linking, final
Is everybody OK with this? consonants

Problem solving at Let’s look at problem 5. Prominence, rhythm,

the board So we are supposed to find the intonation, linking
derivative of a function.
Getting students to
What’s the problem asking us
participate in class
to do?
So, one over u times u prime,
right?

Figure 7.6 Overview of pronunciation teaching points for mathematics ITAs

points are practiced in videotaped minipresentations and are followed up by individual

consultations with the instructor.

Sample activity: Getting students to participate in class

Using transcripts from mathematics problem-solving sessions, students are asked to locate

specific examples of how the TA gets students to participate in class. The teacher can
organize these into categories, such as the following:

• Asking for suggestions on how to solve a problem

• Asking for confirmation of an answer
• Checking for comprehension
• Asking for completion of a statement

Figure 7.7 contains some examples of patterns used by TAs to get students to participate in
class. The teacher plays an audio recording of the phrases and has students read along on the
transcript. Students listen for pauses, prominence, and intonation and mark these features on
their sheet. This is followed by choral repetition. Later, in the computer lab, learners listen
to the sound file again on the course Web site and repeat each phrase multiple times before
recording the phrases onto a separate sound file for the teacher to provide feedback on.

Application to other teaching contexts

This case study is applicable to the most common ITA teaching situations - pre-sessional
orientation courses and semester-long concurrent (in-sessional) courses. In a course with
ITAs who teach a variety of disciplines, it is necessary to use more-generalized and varied
examples, but these can be supplemented by having ITAs interview and observe native-
speaking TAs in their own departments.
 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 299

Getting Students to Participate in Class

The TA asks for suggestions on how to solve the problem (intonation rises or falls

depending on type of question)

tSwdo I GRAPH
(pHthis?

would you SOLVE tms?

• AnVsusGEStions / w

The TA asks for confirmation (using rising intonation)

lookTngfor unitK / ^1 CfHn

this./^RJHf?

The TA checks for comprehension (using rising intonation)

• h-ewry bodvLQ K A^Avi t h me here?

lerea QUESti

The TA begins a statement and asks students to complete it (by putting the question
word what at the end and using falling intonation)

OK, tbmTgonnabe WH^f?

dliusWH A'X?

/ould be WHAlX?

W^e^ookrng~fbT^ of WHAT?

Figure 7.7 How mathematics TAs get students to participate in class: A list of phrases

CASE STUDY 5: AN IN-SERVICE COURSE IN HOW TO TEACH PRONUNCIATION

FOR EGYPTIAN TEACHERS OF ENGLISH
Learners
A group of 25 Egyptian secondary-school teachers of English are participants in a gov-
ernment-sponsored summer in-service training course at a Canadian university. They are
all highly educated native speakers of Arabic whose overall English-language proficiency
is quite advanced. Although their university study concentrated on literature rather than

linguistics, all are quite familiar with the International Phonetic Alphabet. Their command
of English pronunciation varies - mostly in relation to the opportunities each has had to
300 Issues in Implementation

visit and study in English-speaking countries or to work with native English-speaking col-
leagues. Most have been taught to speak British English, and they are thus less familiar with
NAE pronunciation. Language aptitude is high and many speak a second foreign language
(French). These teachers are extremely motivated to be good models for their students and
to learn more about English.

Teaching context
This six-week summer institute includes a number of courses in methodology, of which
teaching pronunciation is one. The instructor is a professor of TESL/Applied Linguistics
with a strong interest in pronunciation pedagogy. The aim of the course is neither theoretical
phonetics nor remedial pronunciation but rather an overview of current methods of teaching
pronunciation communicatively, geared to the background level of the participants as well
as their goal to be good models of spoken English for their students.

Goals of instruction
1 . To examine the major contrasts between the Arabic and English sound systems
2. To expand the participants’ knowledge of methods of teaching pronunciation
communicatively
3. To gain the ability to analyze diagnostic speech samples, in particular of native
Arabic speakers of English
4. To gain the ability to recognize and highlight selected patterns of stress, intona-

tion, and connected speech in recorded samples of authentic spoken English

5. To prioritize pronunciation teaching points for students learning English in the

Egyptian secondary-school system

If the in-service teachers wish to work on their own pronunciation, the following two objec-
tives may be added:

6. To analyze a personal diagnostic speech sample in consultation with the

instructor

7. To develop a personal plan for improvement targeting specific areas of difficulty

Selection of teaching points

The pronunciation features to be presented in this course are selected from three sources:

1 . Individual diagnostic speech samples

2. The major contrasts between the Arabic and English sound systems

3. Typical classroom discourse and the basic communicative patterns of English

routinely taught to Egyptian secondary-school students

Potential teaching points include vowel contrasts, linking, the voiced/voiceless distinction,
consonant clusters, /p/ versus /b/, /r/, word stress, vowel reduction, sentence prominence,
reduced speech, contrastive stress, and sound-spelling correspondences.

Sequencing of teaching points

Because this is such a highly motivated group of experienced teachers with strong personal
goals, the syllabus is generated by distributing a questionnaire on the first day to allow the
trainees themselves to select and sequence the pronunciation features they wish to have
covered in the course. The resulting consensus is based on a balance among the following
factors:
 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 301

1 . An in-depth treatment of the sound system, targeting areas of personal interest

and/or difficulty

2. Exposure to a variety of communicative techniques for teaching pronunciation

3. The practical application of the first two factors to the participants’ own teaching
situation

Delivery of instruction
Initially, the trainees are introduced to several instruments for diagnosing pronunciation
and are given the opportunity to analyze their own pronunciation in consultation with
the instructor. Once the scope and sequence of the course has been defined, sessions are
organized as follows:

Awareness stage: Multiple examples of spoken discourse containing the pronun-

ciation feature are presented through digital audio- or videofiles for trainees to
analyze. (E.g., “Describe the intonation pattern of the tag questions in this conver-
sation. Which ones rise? Which ones fall? What is the communicative function of
the rises and the falls?”)

Analysis stage: The rule or pattern is presented and illustrated using a written
transcript of the taped example along with several other contexts. If appropriate,

visual representations of the feature or pattern are discussed and used to mark the
transcript.

Experiential stage: A variety of contextualized and communicative activities (lis-

tening, cdhtrolled, guided, and free practice) are presented with trainees acting
as the learners. Afterward, trainees discuss each activity in terms of difficulty,
enjoyment, and the appropriateness and practicality of the activity for the Egyptian
public-school context.

Materials development stage: In groups, trainees adapt these activities for their
own students or work on creating new ones of a similar type. Outside of class,
trainees are encouraged to collect authentic samples of spoken discourse to use as
a basis for further materials development.

Sample material: Tutoring a native speaker of Arabic

Trainees are shown a video recording of a tutoring session with a native speaker of Arabic
learning North American English pronunciation. 14 Before watching the segment, the Egyp-
tian trainees receive three guide questions to focus their attention:

1 . What errors does the learner make? How do these errors compare with the
predicted errors for speakers of Arabic learning English?

2. What techniques does the instructor use to help this learner improve his
pronunciation?

3. What have you learned from watching this video that you could adapt to your
own learners?
After viewing the segment, trainees work in small groups to share answers. Groups
then share answers with the larger group.

14
Pronunciation teacher training by Meyers & Holt (1997) is a video/DVD that contains many examples of
one-on-one tutoring sessions, including one with a native speaker of Arabic. See Appendix 23 for more
information about this valuable resource.
Issues in Implementation

Application to other teaching contexts

Because it is designed for experienced teachers of English, this case study can best be
applied to in-service teacher-training programs. However, the pronunciation improvement
component can easily be expanded for less-proficient speakers (e.g., teachers in training
rather than in-service teachers) by including a comprehensive overview of the sound system
before targeting specific features.

CASE STUDY 6: INDIAN CALL-CENTER EMPLOYEES

Learners
This group consists of 20 university-educated customer-service representatives at a call

center in India. The call center serves the American clientele for a major U.S. computer
company. The learners are participating in a four-week intensive training program to enable
them to interact easily and comfortably with North American speakers during a service
call. The program participants all consider English to be one of their primary languages,
in addition to Hindi and perhaps one or two other local dialects. Some North American
customers have complained about not understanding these agents’ speech, so they are being
required by their managers to attend this training course. The goal is for them to be able to
modify their pronunciation during work hours to sound more “American.” This creates a
challenging situation since they have an established identity as speakers of Indian English,
and it is not easy for them to “add” an American accent. In addition, their frequent dealings
with irate customers creates tension and is not conducive to a relaxed and positive attitude
toward North American speech.

Teaching context
The instructor is an experienced teacher who has been living in India for the past four years.
The instruction takes place at the workplace, where the teacher has full access to computers
and a range of instructional technologies.

Goals of instruction
1 . To adopt a more American accent while speaking with North American clients

on the phone
2. To compare word-stress patterns in Indian and North American English with
respect to high-frequency words in the computer industry in general and this
company in particular

3. To slow down the rate of speech and to divide utterances into deliberate thought

groups
4. To practice intonation in common questions when asking about a problem or
handling a complaint
5. To practice intonation in repair strategies used to mediate misunderstandings
with a customer

6. To understand rapid American speech, especially in a context where the cus-

tomer is expressing frustration

Selection of teaching points

The selection of teaching points is based on initial diagnostic speech samples that were done
while observing these workers on the job. Pronunciation features to be addressed include
pausing, word stress, the reduction of vowels in unstressed syllables, prominence, rhythm.
 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 303

and intonation. The teacher has noted some other aspects of the agents’ pronunciation that
contrast with NAE pronunciation, namely aspiration of voiceless stops, the articulation of
/r/, /w/, and the voiced and voiceless “th.”

Sequencing of teaching points

Initially, students need to learn to actively slow down their speech and to consciously pause
between thought groups. Next, they need to practice prominence and intonation to express
the meaning underlying a particular choice in examples of the language these agents need
to use. An overview of these communicative functions and examples of language can be
seen in Figure 7.8.

Communicative function Example of language

Paraphrasing the problem or It sounds as if you’re having difficulty with . . .

issue and reflecting it back to the Have I understood you correctly?

client for confirmation

Using back-channeling language OK, I understand.

to show sympathy for the speaker Oh, really?

Minimizing customer frustration Let me help you with that.

Let’s see what we can do.

Giving instructions with clear First, it’s a good idea to . . .

organizing language

Handling complaints I apologize for the inconvenience, sir.

Would you like me to refer you to a supervisor?

Figure 7.8 Examples of communicative functions and language in a course for Indian
call-center agents

Delivery of instruction
Since these are native speakers of a local variety of English, there is no fluency or profi-
ciency issue. The teacher makes use of the following techniques:

15
1 . Initial analysis and discussion of transcripts and audiofiles of service calls

2. Choral repetition of common phrases used in service calls to help learners

internalize the patterns

3. Role plays and simulations of a service call. Since all of the students own cell

phones, they are able to simulate real phone calls with each other.
4. Recordings of the role plays for the students to review and in order for the
teacher to provide individualized feedback on their performances.

Sample materials: A service call

A framework for understanding the structure of a customer-service call appears in Figure 7.9
(adapted from Forey and Lockwood 2007, 317). The left-hand column shows the structure

15
These have been provided by the computer company, which routinely archives these for its own internal
purposes.
304 Issues in Implementation

of a typical service call between an agent or customer service representative (CSR) and
a customer (C). The transcript of an authentic service call illustrates this structure in the
right-hand column. After discussing the transcript and analyzing the structure behind it, the
teacher uses visual reinforcement and gestures to review prominence and intonation in the
CSR's lines. Choral repetition is followed by pair practice. The teacher provides individual
feedback while monitoring the pair practice.

How may 1 help you ? The structure of a service call

Stages of the service call Transcript of a typical call

Representative Customer

Opening CSR: Customer service, how may I help

you?

Purpose for C: I was calling to see whether or not this

calling policy was still . . . wasn’t cancelled.

Gathering CSR: OK, what’s the policy number. Ma’am?

information C: MT 0013860
CSR: And how can help you with this
I

policy. Ma'am?

Restatement of C: Is this policy still not cancelled

purpose yet, ’cos I’m late in sending out the
payment.

Servicing the CSR: Yes, you’re late sending out payment

customer but you're still under the grace period,
so you can still send in your check.
As long as we receive payment by the
18th, the policy’s OK.

Summarizing C: OK, I’ll send it out today.

CSR: Yes, if you could send it out today that
would be fine.

Closing C: Thank you.

Closing CSR: Not a problem, glad to be of

assistance. Thank you and have a
good day.

Figure 7.9 “How may I help you?” The structure of a service call (Adapted from Forey
and Lockwood 2007, 317)

Next, agents work with an authentic transcript (Forey and Lockwood 2007, 319) that
illustrates a communication breakdown. Agents discuss the reason for the misunderstanding
and the way to repair it, working on word stress and vowel production.

Agent: I’m going to put this through to our reinstatement department.

Customer: Which depart . . . which department?
Agent: Reinstatement. And they'll be the one to check the record if they
could put the policy back in force again.
 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 305

Customer: So it’s going to which department now?

Agent: Reinstatement department.
Customer: Statement department?
Agent: Reinstatement department.
Customer: Statement?
( Agent then spells what he is saying.)

Application to other contexts

The model above could be modified to serve call centers in other countries,
instructional
such as China. This model could also serve as a model for any customer-service enterprise,
whether face-to-face or by phone.

Conclusion
In this chapter, we have focused on the decision-making process that teachers go through
when designing pronunciation instruction. Many variables need to be considered, not the
least of which is which accent to use as our target. Clearly, we need to set realistic goals
which take into consideration the learner, the teacher, and the context. We agree with Kjellin

(1999) that teachers should approach pronunciation instruction as the enterprise of adding
an accent, not reducing or removing one. Once we are able define how learners will use
English, we are better able to make informed choices about instruction. Although some
learners will still wish to acquire a nativelike accent, many speakers of English around the
world are simply interested in communicating intelligibly with other nonnative speakers.
What is common to the ideal pronunciation syllabus is that there should be a focus on
both perception and production of selected features; furthermore, once instructed, learners
should be able to reproduce these features intelligibly within a larger discourse context.
Where possible, they should be exposed to authentic speech samples that allow them to
analyze and focus on a feature before any attempt at articulation. Finally, since no pro-
nunciation course or component can hope to address all aspects of the sound system, the
syllabus should instead focus on core features by prioritizing objectives according to the
learner’s communicative needs, highlighting those aspects of oral communication that have
the greatest impact on the learner’s comprehensibility and that are also learnable.
In the next chapter of this book, we discuss how to assess learners’ pronunciation skills

at the outset of a course, how to provide ongoing feedback, and how to evaluate progress
at the end of a course. The diagnostic function of pronunciation assessment will prove a
critical piece of the puzzle for instructional design, since it is a key to accurately assessing
learners’ needs.
Issues in Implementation

Exercises
Key Concepts
Write a brief definition of the following key terms from this chapter. Give examples where
relevant.

accent addition ESL context

intelligibility EFL context
communicability EIL context
multicompetent language user Lingua Franca Core

Thinking About Your Own Language Learning

Think about a foreign language that you have learned in school or abroad.

1 . Was pronunciation a part of the course? If so, try to reconstruct what features were
explicitly covered (e.g., segmentals, suprasegmentals, voice quality). Can you determine
an underlying rationale for highlighting those feature(s)?
2. Have your language teachers been native or nonnative speakers of the target language?
What effect, if any, do you think this had on their teaching of pronunciation?
3. If English is not your native language, how confident do you feel about teaching Eng-
lish pronunciation? If English is your native language, think of the second language
you know best. How confident would you be about teaching the pronunciation of this
language?

Discussion Questions
1 . What do you think of Kjellin’s term accent addition and Cook's term multicompetent
language userl What effect might these views of pronunciation instruction have on
learner identity?

2. In terms of teaching pronunciation, how would language context (EFL, ESL, EIL)
influence your instructional design?

3. Which do you think would be easier - teaching pronunciation to a homogeneous class

in an EFL language context or a heterogeneous class in an ESL context? Why?
4. Describe the ideal conditions for teaching pronunciation.

In the Classroom
Assume that you are designing a pronunciation course or component. Here are some possible
groups of learners that you might be called upon to teach.

1 . You are tutoring a small group (two to three people). What adjustments to the syllabus

for the individual tutoring format would you make (see Case Study 1)?

2. You are teaching pronunciation to 10 people working in industry abroad. The group
consists of learners ranging from executives to clerical workers, all with varying levels
of pronunciation ability. How would you structure pronunciation practice to deal sen-

sitively with the status issue?

 Pronunciation in the Language Curriculum 307

3. You are teaching a multi-skills EFL course. The textbook is communicatively oriented
but provides no activities or exercises for pronunciation practice. You believe that the
students need to work on their pronunciation. What would you do?
4. You have been asked to teach an oral-skills course to English majors in their first year
of study at a university in a country where English is not a primary language. To what
extent and in what ways would you incorporate pronunciation into this course?

Suggested Activities
1 . Examine a current text that explicitly treats the skill of pronunciation (either an all-skills
text or a text devoted exclusively to pronunciation). Answer the following questions:

a. What is the author’s philosophy of teaching pronunciation? Does it reflect a seg-

mental view or a more global, communicative approach?

b. Does the text teach pronunciation in isolation, or does it integrate the teaching of
pronunciation with that of other skills?

c. Do you consider the choice of pronunciation teaching points adequate, given the
intended population? Why or why not?

2. Choose and define a population that you have taught or expect to teach. Describe the
population in terms of the variables discussed. Then, using the case study framework
presented in this chapter, design a course of study for pronunciation.

3. Interview an experienced teacher of pronunciation. Ask this teacher for a copy of a

pronunciation course syllabus and find out about the procedure used to design the
course. What variables influenced his or her determination of objectives?
m

CHAPTER 8

Testing and Evaluation

In the previous chapter, we looked at curriculum development, including how to set realistic
goals and target learners’ needs in a principled way. We now turn our attention to the issues
of testing and evaluation, which, although we devote a separate chapter to them, are undeni-
ably interwoven and essential to the entire process and cycle of curriculum development and
teaching. Despite there being a body of literature on speaking assessment (Luoma 2004),
there is less that pertains specifically to pronunciation. However, there are features unique
to pronunciation that affect how evaluation is carried out, how feedback is provided, and
at which stages of instruction feedback is most appropriately given. Most important is the
fact that pronunciation involves not only perception and production but also the application
of relevant phonological rules. As a result, pronunciation may be evaluated both holisti-
cally - assigning one overall rating - or analytically, that is, rating the learner’s control of
individual pronunciation features, which may be defined as broadly as “prominence and
intonation” or as narrowly as “the ability to produce /r/ and (M correctly.” In this chapter, we
look at several facets of pronunciation assessment: diagnostic procedures, including formal
oral proficiency tests that include pronunciation as one component, ongoing evaluation with
feedback (self-monitoring, peer feedback, and teacher correction), and classroom achieve-
ment tests. (See also Goodwin, Brinton, and Celce-Murcia 1994 for additional discussion
of pronunciation assessment issues.)
Many of the evaluation techniques discussed in this chapter will resemble the teaching
techniques presented in Part 2 of this text. This is completely intentional - the more familiar
learners are with the format of a test, the greater the chance that their performance will
reflect their true competence in that area. The second important point to remember when
reading this chapter is that listening discrimination skills are considered to be an important
part of developing intelligible oral production and thus are also a major part of evaluating
overall pronunciation.

308