PROCESSORS

The processor is a chip or a logical circuit that responds and processes the basic instructions
to drive a particular computer. The main functions of the processor are fetching, decoding,
executing, and write back the operations of an instruction. The processor is also called the
brain of any system which incorporates computers, laptops, smartphones, embedded systems,
etc. The ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) and CU (Control Unit) are the two parts of the
processors. The Arithmetic Logic Unit performs all mathematical operations such as
additions, multiplications, subtractions, divisions, etc and the control unit works like traffic
police, it manages the command or the operation of the instructions. The processor
communicates with the other components also they are input/output devices and
memory/storage devices. Some of the processor manufacturer companies are Intel, AMD,
Qualcomm, Motorola, Samsung, IBM, etc. Capability of processors is measured in terms of:
 Maximum number of bits/instructions
 Relative clock speed
 The ability to process instruction at a given time

Types of Processors:
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU): This is the primary processor in a computer,
responsible for executing most instructions and performing calculations. These consists of
a control unit, ALU, a bunch of registers also called scratchpad registers, control registers
and status registers.
2. Application-Specific Instruction Set Processor (ASIP): It is a component used in the
system-on-a-chip design. The instruction set of ASIP is customized to benefit specific
applications. For certain ASIPs, this instruction set is configurable. ASIP can be an
alternative to hardware accelerators for video coding or baseband signal processing.
3. Microcontroller:The microcontroller is basically a computer that comes in various
packages and sizes. These are small, low-power processors used in embedded systems,
such as in appliances, automotive systems, and IoT devices. The reading input and
responding to output is the basic function of the microcontroller.
4. Processor based on Flynn’s classification: According to Flynn’s taxonomy, processors
can be classified based on concurrent instructions and data streams available in
architecture. Let us now discuss each of the above one by one.
i. SISD (Single Instruction Single Data) It is a computer architecture in which a
single uni-core processor executes a single instruction stream. This is done for
operating on data stored in a single memory. SISD can have (as per Flynn)
concurrent processing characteristics.
Here, instructions are sent to the control unit from the memory module. Then, they
are decoded and sent to a processing unit that processes data retrieved from the
memory module and then sends it back. Examples of SSID are traditional
uniprocessor machines such as PCs, old mainframes, pipelined, and superscalar
processors.
 [Link] Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD):It is a type of computer that comes
with multiple processing elements. It simultaneously performs same operation on
multiple data points as well as parallel computations on only a single instruction at
a given time. SIMD may be a part of the hardware design and is directly
accessible through instruction set architecture (ISA). These machines do not
exploit concurrency.
iii. Multiple instruction Single Data (MISD) :It is a type of parallel computing
architecture where multiple functional units perform different operations on the
same data. Every CU here handles and processes one instruction stream through
corresponding processing elements. It has an architecture that is used for fault
tolerance. MISD organisation computers are used rarely. Space Shuttle flight
control computer is an example of MISD.
iv. Multiple Instruction Multiple Data (MIMD) :This refers to a technique used for
achieving parallelism. Machines that have MIMD have several processors that
function independently and asynchronously. Multiple autonomous processors
execute, at any time, execute different instructions on different data pieces.
These machines can be either shared or distributed memory categories based on
how MIMD processors access memory. Shared memory may be bus-based,
hierarchical or extended types. Distributed memory may be of hypercube or mesh
types.
5. Processor Based on Number of Cores: Following are the different types of processors
based on the number of cores:
i. Single core
A single-core microprocessor has a single core in its die. It performs the ‘fetch-
decode-execute cycle’ once per clock cycle since it runs only on a single thread.
These processors have been less in demand due to lesser processing power. Their
slow speed has made multi-core systems more popular.
ii. Multi-core
Multi-core processors are microprocessors on a single integrated unit having two
or more cores. Each core reads and executes the program instructions. Here, a
single processor can simultaneously run instructions on a separate core. Due to
this, the overall speed for programs supporting multithreading and parallel
computing techniques increases.
iii. Hyper-Threading
It is a technology that is used in the Intel microprocessors. This technology allows
a single microprocessor to act as two processors for the operating system and the
application. Through hyperthreading, processor resources are more efficiently
used, allowing multiple threads to run on each core.
6. Special processors: Following are the different types of special processors:

i. Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): GPUs are specialized processors designed for
rendering graphics and accelerating tasks related to image and video processing. They
are commonly used in gaming and graphics-intensive applications.
ii. Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC): ASICs are custom-designed
processors for specific taskssuch as cryptocurrency mining or artificial
[Link] chips are small in size and consume low power. The design cost of
ASIC is high and this is the main disadvantage.
 iii. Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA): FPGAs are programmable processors
used in applications that require flexibility, such as prototyping and rapid
development of specialized hardware.

iv. Digital Signal Processor (DSP): DSPs are optimized for tasks involving digital
signal processing, like audio and video compression and [Link] is used for
measuring, filtering and/or compress digital or analog signals. The signal processing
means analysis and manipulation of signal. The DSP processors are used in an
oscilloscope, barcode scanners, mobile phones, printers, etc. These processors are fast
and use for real-time applications.
v. Network processor:It is a special-purpose hardware device that is programmable.
Like RISC processors, these are low-cost and flexible, scalable and fast as ASIC
chips. Such processors are used for designing networking applications.

Intel and AMD processors

Intel
Intel is an abbreviation for Integrated Electronics. The American tech company and
multinational corporation, Intel Corporation, has its headquarter in Santa Clara, Silicon
Valley, California. Robert Noyce invented Intel. This corporation developed the Intel 8086 –
the first x86 processor. On a scale of 1-10, all the Intel processors range from 4-10. Almost
all of them come with iGPU, and they have a commendable CPU performance.
The Intel processors clock higher than the AMD ones- but they consume a lot higher power
and cost the device longer battery life. Thus, this processor is viable for devices like laptops
that need single-core boosts and short workloads where the battery life is not a primary
concern.
For example- Intel Core m series, Intel Core i series, Intel Xeon, etc.

AMD
AMD is an abbreviation for Advanced Micro Devices. AMD is a multinational company that
is American, based in Santa Clara, California. John Carey, Jack Gifford, and Jerry Sanders
invented it. This company began to supply x86 processors in the form of second-source
manufacturers. They thus became the competitors of Am386. Considering a range of scale
from 1-10, the AMD processors fall under the range of 5-10. They are comparatively cheaper
than any Intel Processors in a similar range.
The AMD processors are way more efficient than the current-gen Core series. The APUs of
AMD are also a commendable option because they offer a great CPU performance and better
iGPU performance compared to the Core i series. All the laptops that have Ryzen processors
often have a lower clocking, and they are less aggressive than the laptops with Intel
processors. They have longer battery life. Thus, whenever a user prefers a longer battery life
and higher iGPU performance than the Core i series, the Ryzen powered laptops are a better
option. Although, the older A-series APUs and FX series because they consume more power
and produce more heat.
In the case of devices like desktops and mobiles, where a person uses them for day-to-day
purposes and gaming, the Ryzen APU is the best option. For some heavy tasks such as 3D
modeling, video editing, and more, the Threadripper or Ryzen 7 or 9 CPUs are preferable. In
the case of Ryzen AMUs and CPUs on the AM4 platform, a user needs to check the
motherboard chipset for support- otherwise, the PC may not proceed to boot. But one can
resolve it with motherboards that have USB BIOS flashing for their newer processors.
Difference Between Intel and AMD
Parameter Intel AMD

Cost Efficiency Intel processors are less expensive AMD processors are less expensive
compared to the AMD ones at the compared to the Intel ones at the
lower range. higher range.

Heating It may heat up when someone uses it The AMD processor generally stays
with a Clock Speed Boost of 14nm. cooler than Intel due to its small
lithography. The TSMC 7nm is very
similar to the Intel 10nm.

Efficiency Intel is way more efficient compared AMD is not very efficient as
to AMD processors. compared to the Intel processors.

iGPU In the case of Intel, it has iGPU in In the case of AMD, it has iGPU only
almost all the Core i series in the AMD APU series. The GPU
(excluding the Core i F-series). performance here is higher than the
Intel iGPU.

Clock Speed Intel’s Clock speed can reach and AMD’s Clock speed may reach 5.0
surpass 5.0 GHz. GHz. But in this case, it produces
more heat.

Multiprocessing Intel possesses symmetric AMD possesses symmetric

capabilities multiprocessing capabilities that can multiprocessing capabilities that can
go up to 4 sockets/ 28 cores. go up to 8 sockets/ 128 cores.

IPC The Intel (Rocket Lake) IPC is The (Zen 3) AMD IPC is higher than
lower than that of (Zen 3) AMD. that of (Rocket Lake) Intel.

PENTIUM PROCESSORS
Pentium is a discontinued series of x86 architecture-compatible microprocessors produced
by Intel. The original Pentium was first released on March 22, 1993. The original Intel
P5 or Pentium and Pentium MMX processors were the superscalar follow-on to
the 80486 processor. n parallel with the P5 microarchitecture, Intel developed the P6
microarchitecture and started marketing it as the Pentium Pro for the high-end market in
1995. It introduced out-of-order execution and an integrated second-level cache on dual-chip
processor package. The second P6 generation replaced the original P5 with the Pentium II . It
was followed by a third version named the Pentium III and Pentium III Xeon respectively.

Inte l 10th Generation Processors:

The Intel 10th Generation comet lake series is built on a 14nm redesigned
architecture. Intel has classified this CPU into six categories:

 i9 for enthusiasts
 i7 for outstanding performance
 i5 for efficiency
 i3 for moderate performance
 Pentium and Celeron for low workloads
 i9 i7 i5 i3

Up to Up to
Max Number of Cores/Threads Up to 10/20 Up to 8/16
6/12 4/8

Maximum Base Frequency (GHz) 3.7 3.8 4.1 3.8

Intel Thermal Velocity Boost

Technology Single / All Core Turbo Up to 5.3/4.9 n/a n/a n/a
Frequency (GHz)

Intel Turbo Boost Technology 3.0 Up to 5.2 Up to 5.1 n/a n/a

Up to Up to
Intel Single Core Turbo Frequency Up to 5.1 Up to 5.0
4.8 4.6

Up to
Intel Smart Cache Size (MB) Up to 20 Up to 16 Up to 8
12

Up to Up to Up to
Memory Type Support Up to DDR4-2933 DDR4- DDR4- DDR4-
2933 2666 2666

Char ac te ristics of Intel 10th Gen Processors:

Because they can readily calculate large operations or applications, the 10th
Generation Intel Core processors are strong processors that can be utilized for any
purpose. This CPU has several extra features, including:

Efficiency:
Because it features an intelligent performance function that learns and adapts to what
you do, this processor can help you increase your efficiency.

Connectivity:
With integrated Intel Wi-Fi 6 (Gig+), Intel Ethernet Connection I225, and Thunderbolt
3 technology, the 10th Generation Intel Core CPUs enable rapid, safe, and versatile
wireless and wired networking.

Quality Entertainment:
A new graphics architecture supports ultra-vivid visual experiences like 4K HDR and
1080p gaming. The Intel Core Intel graphics processors of the 10th generation enable
you to experience content like never before.

Gaming:
Play high-fps games at up to 5.3GHz while streaming and recording. Overclockable
10th Generation Intel Core Processors favor low-cost gaming laptops and desktop
computers that are likely to use outdated processors and graphics cards.
 Inte l 11th Gen Processor:
The 11th Generation CPU, codenamed Rocket Lake, is 10nm in size and is built
around a revolutionary new core and graphics design. Intel Core CPUs are designed to
make any work quicker and easier to complete. Acceleration with AI-assisted
technologies, Intel X graphics, and best-in-class networking all work together to
increase the efficiency you feel. The 11th generation is broken into five parts.
They are the X series for high-end gaming and enthusiast performance, the i9 for
entertainment and gaming with ultra 4K video and 360 videos, the i7 for entertainment
and gaming with built-in AI acceleration and Wi-Fi 6, and the i5 for an immersive
experience and content making, and the i3 for next-generation graphics.
i9 i7 i5 i3

Number of cores 8 8 6 4

Number of Threads 16 16 12 8

Processor Base Frequency 3.30 GHz 3.20 GHz 3.30 GHz 3.60 GHz

Max turbo frequency 4.90 GHz 4.80 GHz 4.60 GHz 4.40 GHz

Intel Thermal Velocity

5.30 GHz 5.30 GHz 5.30 GHz 5.30 GHz
Boost Frequency

Cache 24 MB 24 MB 12 MB 12 MB

Bus Speed 8 GT/s 8 GT/s 8 GT/s 8 GT/s

Intel Turbo Boost Max

4.90 GHz 4.80 GHz 4.60 GHz 4.40 GHz
Technology 3.0 Frequency

TDP 65 W 65 W 65 W 65 W

Char ac te ristics of Intel 11th Generation Processor:

The Intel 11th Generation core CPU is intended for high-end gaming and
entertainment performance. As a result, this processor will be found in premium
laptops running Windows 11 or Linux. Here are some qualities that attract Pakistan's
finest laptop makers to adopt Intel 11th Generation Processors.

Innovative design:
The new graphics core and architecture, AI-based intelligent performance, and 11th-
generation Intel Core wireless and cable networking take laptop and desktop
achievement to new heights in eternal harmony.

Intel X graphics:
Intel X graphics architecture enables rich and enjoyable experiences, such as 4K HDR
and 1080p gaming on laptops and desktops. Up to 20 PCIe, 4.0 lanes support the
newest discrete GPUs.

Artificial intelligence (AI):

 Advanced, integrated AI (AI) adds new features and works alongside applications to
improve operational flow and speed, making things easier.

Enhanced Connectivity:
Intel Wi-Fi6/6E (Gig+) provides nearly 3X faster speeds for excellent wireless
activities. Wi-Fi technology has been the most significant development in the last 20
years. Thunderbolt 4 provides a dedicated, universal connector for charging and
accessory connectivity.

Di ffe r e nce Between 10th and 11th Gen:

10th generation 11th generation

14nm 10nm

Architecture:

Based on revised architecture Based on new core architecture

Performance:

High performance in entertainment, gaming

Great performance but lower than
and for
the 11th Gen
professional or personal use

AI Support:

Advanced AI support which is better than 10th

Good AI support
Gen

Wi-Fi:

Includes Wi-Fi 6 Includes Wi-Fi 6E

Thunderbolt:

Includes Thunderbolt 4, which guarantees

Includes Thunderbolt 3 amazing
connectivity and is faster and more reliable

Memory Speed:

It supports up to DDR4-2933MHz It supports up to DDR4-3200MHz memory

memory speed speed

Ryzen 4000 series

Renoir (4000 series, Zen 2 based)
Based on the Ryzen 4000G series APUs with the integrated GPU disabled.
Common features of Ryzen 4000 desktop CPUs:

 All the CPUs support DDR4-3200 in dual-channel mode.

 L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instruction) per core.
 L2 cache: 512 KB per core.
 All the CPUs support 24 PCIe 3.0 lanes. 4 of the lanes are reserved as link to the
chipset.
 No integrated graphics.
Ryzen 5000 series
Vermeer (5000 series, Zen 3 based)
Common features of Ryzen 5000 desktop CPUs:

 All the CPUs support DDR4-3200 in dual-channel mode.

 L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instruction) per core.
 L2 cache: 512 KB per core.
 All the CPUs support 24 PCIe 4.0 lanes. 4 of the lanes are reserved as link to the
chipset.
 No integrated graphics.
Cezanne (5000 series, Zen 3 based)
Cezanne based CPUs that have the integrated GPU disabled. Common features of Ryzen 5000
(Cezanne) desktop CPUs:

 CPUs support DDR4-3200 in dual-channel mode.

 L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instruction) per core.
 L2 cache: 512 KB per core.
 CPUs support 24 PCIe 3.0 lanes. 4 of the lanes are reserved as link to the chipset.
 No integrated graphics.
Ryzen 7000 series
Raphael (7000 series, Zen 4 based)
Common features of Ryzen 7000 desktop CPUs:

 All the CPUs support DDR5-5200 in dual-channel mode.

 L1 cache: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instruction) per core.
 L2 cache: 1 MB per core.
 All the CPUs support 28 PCIe 5.0 lanes. 4 of the lanes are reserved as link to the
chipset.
 Includes integrated RDNA 2 GPU with 2 CUs and clock speeds of 0.4 GHz (base),
2.2 GHz (boost). Models with "F" suffixes are without iGPUs.