COMPUTER MEMORY

In a computer, memory refers to the physical devices that are used to store programs or data
on a temporary or permanent basis. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer
memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and instructions
required for processing are stored. It is a group of registers. The memory is divided into large
number of small parts called cells. Each cell has a unique address which varies from 0 to
memory size minus one.
Memory are of two types (i) primary memory, (ii) secondary memory. Primary memory is
made up of semiconductors. It is also divided into two types, Read-Only Memory (ROM)
and Random Access Memory (RAM). Secondary memory is a physical device for the
permanent storage of programs and data(Hard disk, Compact disc, Flash drive, etc.).

Memory vs. Storage

Although the terms "memory" and "storage" are frequently used interchangeably, there are
some distinct and important differences between both. Simply said, storage is secondary
memory, while memory is primary or main memory. Storage refers to where long-term data
is stored, whereas memory refers to where short-term data is stored.

PRIMARY MEMORY

Primary memory is a segment of computer memory that can be accessed directly by the
processor. In a hierarchy of memory, primary memory has access time less than secondary
memory and greater than cache memory. Generally, primary memory has a storage capacity
lesser than secondary memory and greater than cache memory.

Primary memory is divided into CPU registers, cache memory and main memory.

CPU Registers:Register memory is the smallest and fastest memory in a computer. It is not a
part of the main memory and is located in the CPU in the form of registers, which are the
smallest data holding elements. A register temporarily holds frequently used data,
instructions, and memory address that are to be used by CPU. They hold instructions that are
currently processed by the CPU. All data is required to pass through registers before it can be
processed. So, they are used by CPU to process the data entered by the [Link] hold a
small amount of data around 32 bits to 64 bits.

Cache memory: Cache memory is a high-speed memory, which is small in size but faster
than the main memory (RAM). The CPU can access it more quickly than the primary
memory. So, it is used to synchronize with high-speed CPU and to improve its [Link]
is mounted on a different chip that connects to the CPU via a bus or is frequently built
directly into the CPU chip; hence, it is also known as CPU memory.

Cache memory can only be accessed by CPU. It can be a reserved part of the main memory
or a storage device outside the CPU. It holds the data and programs which are frequently used
by the CPU. So, it makes sure that the data is instantly available for CPU whenever the CPU
needs this data. In other words, if the CPU finds the required data or instructions in the cache
memory, it doesn't need to access the primary memory (RAM). Thus, by acting as a buffer
between RAM and CPU, it speeds up the system performance.

Types of Cache Memory:

L1: It is the first level of cache memory, which is called Level 1 cache or L1 cache. In this
type of cache memory, a small amount of memory is present inside the CPU itself. If a CPU
has four cores (quad core cpu), then each core will have its own level 1 cache. As this
memory is present in the CPU, it can work at the same speed as of the CPU. The size of this
memory ranges from 2KB to 64 KB. The L1 cache further has two types of caches:
Instruction cache, which stores instructions required by the CPU, and the data cache that
stores the data required by the CPU.

L2: This cache is known as Level 2 cache or L2 cache. This level 2 cache may be inside the
CPU or outside the CPU. All the cores of a CPU can have their own separate level 2 cache, or
they can share one L2 cache among themselves. In case it is outside the CPU, it is connected
with the CPU with a very high-speed bus. The memory size of this cache is in the range of
256 KB to the 512 KB. In terms of speed, they are slower than the L1 cache.

L3: It is known as Level 3 cache or L3 cache. This cache is not present in all the processors;
some high-end processors may have this type of cache. This cache is used to enhance the
performance of Level 1 and Level 2 cache. It is located outside the CPU and is shared by all
the cores of a CPU. Its memory size ranges from 1 MB to 8 MB. Although it is slower than
L1 and L2 cache, it is faster than Random Access Memory (RAM).

Main memory:It is generally used to store data or information on which the computer is
currently working, so we can say that it is used to store data temporarily. The main memory
is divided into two types:
(i). Read-Only Memory (ROM)
(ii). Random Access Memory (RAM).
1. Random Access Memory: Primary memory is also called internal memory. This is the
main area in a computer where data, instructions, and information are stored. Any storage
location in this memory can be directly accessed by the Central Processing Unit. As the
CPU can randomly access any storage location in this memory, it is also called Random
Access Memory or RAM. The CPU can access data from RAM as long as the computer is
switched on. As soon as the power to the computer is switched off, the stored data and
instructions disappear from RAM. Such type of memory is known as volatile memory.
RAM is also called read/write memory.
2. Read-Only Memory: Read-Only Memory (ROM) is a type of primary memory from
which information can only be read. So it is also known as Read-Only Memory. ROM can
be directly accessed by the Central Processing Unit. But, the data and instructions stored in
ROM are retained even when the computer is switched off OR we can say it holds the data
after being switched off. Such type of memory is known as non-volatile memory.
RAM is further classified as under:

o Dynamic RAM: A type of random-access memory that is used in computing systems

(primarily PCs) is called dynamic random-access memory (DRAM). The data or program
code required for a computer processor to operate is often stored in DRAM. It is made up
of capacitors and transistors and electric charge leaks from capacitors and DRAM needs
to be charged periodically in a few milliseconds to retain data. Each electrical
component has two value states, known as 0 and 1, in one [Link] is widely used in
home PCs and servers as it is cheaper than SRAM.
o Static RAM: As long as SRAM receives power, it keeps data bits in its memory. SRAM
uses Sequential circuits like a flip-flop to store a bit and hence need not be periodically
refreshed. SRAM is expensive and hence only used where speed is the utmost priority.
o Rambus Dynamic RAM: A memory component called DRDRAM made a guarantee to
transport up to 1.6 billion bytes per second. The RAM controller subsystem consists of
RAM, a bus connecting RAM to the microprocessor, and computer-using devices that
make up the subsystem.

Read-only memory is classified as:

o Programmable ROM: PROM is ROM that a user can modify only once. Using a unique
device known as a PROM programmer enables a user to customize a microcode program.
o Erasable PROM: EPROM is a type of computer memory that can be erased and re-used.
It is programmable read-only memory PROM.
o Electrically erasable PROM: A user-modifiable ROM called an EEPROM can be
repeatedly wiped and reprogrammed with the help of an using electrical voltage that is
higher than usual. Unlike EPROM chips, EEPROMs can be changed without being taken
 out of the computer. However, an EEPROM chip must be completely deleted and
reprogrammed, not just some parts of it.

Double Data Rate SDRAM (DDR RAM)

The next generation of the synchronous DRAM is known as the DDR RAM. It was
developed to overcome the limitations of SDRAM and was used in PC memory at the
beginning of the year 2000. In DDR SDRAM (DDR RAM), the data is transferred twice
during each clock cycle; during the positive edge (rising edge) and the negative edge
(falling edge) of the cycle. So, it is known as the double data rate SDRAM.
There are different generations of DDR SDRAM which include DDR1, DDR2, DDR3,
and DDR4. Today, the memory that we use inside the desktop, laptop, mobile, etc., is
mostly either DDR3 or DDR4 RAM. Types of DDR SDRAM:
a) DDR1 SDRAM:

DDR1 SDRAM is the first advanced version of SDRAM. In this RAM, the voltage was
reduced from 3.3 V to 2.5 V. The data is transferred during both the rising as well as the
falling edge of the clock cycle. So, in each clock cycle, instead of 1 bit, 2 bits are being
pre-fetched which is commonly known as the 2 bit pre-fetch. It is mostly operated in the
range of 133 MHz to the 200 MHz.
Furthermore, the data rate at the input-output bus is double the clock frequency because
the data is transferred during both the rising as well as falling edge. So, if a DDR1 RAM
is operating at 133 MHz, the data rate would be double, 266 Mega transfer per second.
ii) DDR2 SDRAM:

It is an advanced version of DDR1. It operates at 1.8 V instead of 2.5V. Its data rate is
double the data rate of the previous generation due to the increase in the number of bits
that are pre-fetched during each cycle; 4 bits are pre-fetched instead of 2 bits. The internal
bus width of this RAM has been doubled. For example, if the input-output bus is 64 bits
 wide, the internal bus width of it will be equal to 128 bits. So, a single cycle can handle
double the amount of data.
iii) DDR3 SDRAM:

In this version, the voltage is further reduced from 1.8 V to the 1.5 V. The data rate has
been doubled than the previous generation RAM as the number of bits that are pre-
fetched has been increased from 4 bits to the 8 bits. We can say that the internal data bus
width of RAM has been increased 2 times than that of the last generation.
iv) DDR4 SDRAM:

In this version, the operating voltage is further reduced from 1.5 V to 1.2 V, but the
number of bits that can be pre-fetched is same as the previous generation; 8 bits per cycle.
The Internal clock frequency of the RAM is double of the previous version. If you are
operating at 400 MHz the clock frequency of the input-output bus would be four times,
1600 MHz and the transfer rate would be equal to 3200 Mega transfer per second.

Another type of memory used in computer is Virtual memory. It is a memory management

method that enables the use of secondary memory just like it was a component of main
memory. In order to compensate for physical memory shortages, virtual memory uses
hardware and software to temporarily shift data from RAM to disk storage.

SECONDARY MEMORY
Secondary memory is a type of computer memory that is used to store data and programs
that can be accessed or retrieved even after the computer is turned off. Unlike primary
memory, which is volatile and temporary, secondary memory is non-volatile and can store
data and programs for extended periods of time.
1. Some examples of secondary memory include hard disk drives (HDDs), solid-
state drives (SSDs), optical discs (such as CDs and DVDs), and flash memory
(such as USB drives and memory cards). These storage devices provide a much
larger capacity than primary memory and are typically used to store large
amounts of data, such as operating systems, application programs, media files,
and other types of digital content.
2. Secondary memory can be classified into two types: magnetic storage and solid-
state storage. Magnetic storage devices, such as hard disk drives and magnetic
tapes, use magnetic fields to store and retrieve data. Solid-state storage devices,
such as solid-state drives and flash memory, use semiconductor-based memory
chips to store data.
3. One of the main advantages of secondary memory is its non-volatile nature,
which means that data and programs stored on secondary memory can be
 accessed even after the computer is turned off. Additionally, secondary memory
devices provide a large storage capacity, making it possible to store large
amounts of data and programs.
However, there are also some disadvantages to secondary memory, such as slower access
times and lower read/write speeds compared to primary memory. Additionally, secondary
memory devices are often more prone to mechanical failures and data corruption, which can
result in data loss.
Overall, secondary memory plays an important role in modern computing systems and is
essential for storing large amounts of data and programs.

Use of Secondary memory

Secondary memory is used for different purposes but the main purposes of using secondary
memory are:
 Permanent storage: As we know that primary memory stores data only when the
power supply is on, it loses data when the power is off. So we need a secondary
memory to stores data permanently even if the power supply is off.
 Large Storage: Secondary memory provides large storage space so that we can
store large data like videos, images, audios, files, etc permanently.
 Portable: Some secondary devices are removable. So, we can easily store or
transfer data from one computer or device to another.

Types of Secondary memory

Secondary memory is of two types:

[Link] storage
In secondary memory, a fixed storage is an internal media device that is used to store data
in a computer system. Fixed storage is generally known as fixed disk drives or hard drives.
Generally, the data of the computer system is stored in a built-in fixed storage device. Fixed
storage does not mean that you can not remove them from the computer system, you can
remove the fixed storage device for repairing, for the upgrade, or for maintenance, etc. with
the help of an expert or engineer.
Types of fixed storage:
Following are the types of fixed storage:
 Internal flash memory (rare)
 SSD (solid-state disk)
 Hard disk drives (HDD)
2. Removable storage
In secondary memory, removable storage is an external media device that is used to store
data in a computer system. Removable storage is generally known as disks drives or
external drives. It is a storage device that can be inserted or removed from the computer
according to our requirements. We can easily remove them from the computer system while
the computer system is running. Removable storage devices are portable so we can easily
transfer data from one computer to another. Also, removable storage devices provide the
fast data transfer rates associated with storage area networks (SANs).
Types of Removable Storage:
 Optical discs (like CDs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs, etc.)
 Memory cards
 Floppy disks
 Magnetic tapes
 Disk packs
 Paper storage (like punched tapes, punched cards, etc.)

HARD DISK DRIVE

A computer hard disk drive (HDD) is an internal or external non-volatile data storage device,
that stores data, such as the operating system, applications, and user files.

Hard disk drives control the reading and writing of the hard disk that provides data storage.
HDDs are used either as the primary or secondary storage device in a computer. They are
commonly found in the drive bay and are connected to the motherboard via an Advanced
Technology Attachment (ATA), Serial ATA, parallel ATA or Small Computer System
Interface (SCSI) cable, among other formats. The HDD is also connected to a power supply
unit and can keep stored data while powered down.

A hard disk drive -- often shortened to hard drive -- and hard disk are not the same things, but
they are packaged as a unit and either term can refer to the whole unit.

Working Principle of a Hard Disk

A hard disk typically works on the principle of simple magnetism to store the data and
information. A hard drive typically consists of a large plate that is usually made up of a
magnetic material and is known as a platter. The platter is usually constructed in a circular
shape. The surface of the magnetic plate is divided into billions of tiny compartments. The
magnetization of the tiny areas can be performed independently. Magnetized tiny area of the
plate denotes a binary high and is equivalent to binary value one; whereas, the demagnetized
tiny area denotes a binary low and is equivalent to binary value zero. This indicates that the
letters, numbers, and other forms of data stored by the hard disk drive are a combination of
binary values, i.e., zeroes or ones. The smallest portion of the information stored by the hard
disk drive is known as a bit. The process of magnetization of materials is typically preferred
to store information in the disks as it does not get affected by switching off the power supply.
The data is retained by the drive even if it is not connected to the power supply for a long
time period. The magnetised portion of the hard disk tends to stay magnetized until it is
externally demagnetised, thereby allowing reliable storage of data.

Components of a Hard Disk

A hard disk drive typically consists of 9 major components, namely an actuator, a read-write
arm, a central spindle, a magnetic platter, a plug, a read-write head, circuit board, a
connector, and a small spindle.

1. Actuator
The actuator is a simple device that helps in the conversion of electrical energy into
mechanical energy. Here, the main purpose of the actuator is to drive the read-write
arm. Initially, stepper motors were typically used by the hard drives to move the read-write
arm, but they were soon replaced by the actuators as stepper motors move at a comparatively
slower rate, are less reliable, lack precision, and are much more sensitive to physical
parameters of the environment such as temperature, pressure, etc. In some of the latest
versions of hard disk drives, voice coils are used in the place of actuators.

2. Read-Write Arm
The read-write arm acts as a driving mechanism that moves the read-write head over the
surface of the platter in a back and forth direction.

3. Central Spindle
The spindle attached to the centre of the platter holds the device in place and helps in the
uniform rotation of the disk at a considerably high speed along its axis.

4. Magnetic Platter
A magnetic platter is a circular disk that is typically made up of aluminium or glass and has a
magnetic coating applied on its surface. It is one of the most important parts of a hard disk
drive. The magnetic platter of a hard disk is mainly responsible for the storage of data with
the help of the magnetisation process. A hard disk drive consists of a number of magnetic
platter disks that are stacked on top of one another and are mounted on a common spindle.
The rotation per minute of the platter is directly proportional to the speed of operation of the
device.

5. Plug
The plug of the hard disk helps to connect the hard disk drive to a computer system.

6. Read-Write Head
The read-write head is a small piece of a magnet attached to the top of a read-write arm that
performs the main task of reading data from the hard disk and writing the data on the surface
of the platter. A hard disk drive typically consists of two read-write heads for each platter
disk. One of the heads is attached to the top of the platter, whereas, the other is placed in
close contact with its base. This enables the device to access data available on both sides of
the platter. To protect the device from excessive wear and tear, the read-write head is made to
hover over the surface and a layer of fluid or air is inserted between the read-write head and
the platter.

7. Circuit Board
The circuit board of a hard disk drive is usually made up of aluminium, glass, or ceramic
material. It is embedded in the internal circuitry of the hard disk drive and is used to circulate
the data contained by the disk by controlling the flow of data to and from the magnetised
platter.

8. Flexible Connector
The flexible connector attached to the internal mechanism of the hard disk drive near the
platter is mainly used to carry data from the circuit board to the read-write head of the device
and vice versa.

9. Small Spindle
A small spindle is attached to the side of the machinery that helps the read-write arm of the
device to swing sideways over the magnetised platter.
Working of a Hard Disk
A hard drive consists of a stack of disks or platters that spin at a significantly high speed. A
recording head is typically attached to the top and the bottom portion of each platter. A layer
of microscopic magnetized metal grains is applied to the surface of the disks. The main
purpose of the coating of magnetized metal grains present on the surface of disks is to form
magnetic patterns to hold the information or store the data. For this purpose, the grains tend
to arrange themselves in the form of groups. Here, each group formed by the grains is known
as a bit. The two states in which the magnetization of the grains can be achieved denote the
binary bits 0 and 1. The data is stored on to the disk by converting digital data or the binary
combination of bits into analogue data or the electric current. The transfer of bits takes place
with the help of an electromagnet that is attached to the internal mechanism of the hard drive.
The magnetic field generated by the electromagnet is highly intense and is capable of
reversing or changing the direction of magnetization of the metal grains. To retrieve the
information stored on the drive, a magnetic reader is used. The information that is stored on
the surface of the hard disk drive is arranged in a specific order. The data bits containing the
information are arranged in concentric circular paths. These paths are known as tracks. The
tracks can be further divided into smaller areas known as sectors. Whenever the user provides
a command to save the data, the read-write head of the device tries to locate the free sectors
of the platter and establish magnetisation and demagnetisation of the magnetic grains present
in that particular area according to the input signal. A portion of the hard disk drive is
specifically dedicated to keep a track of the free and used up portions of the drive. The map
that displays the usage of the drive is known as the file allocation table or FAT. When the
user provides a command to the computer to save information on the surface of the disk, then
the computer approaches the file allocation table to find the appropriate place required to save
the data. Once the suitable place is located by the computer, the read-write head is made to
move on the surface of the platter accordingly. Finally, the grains present on the surface of
the disk get magnetized and demagnetized as per the input data, and the data is successfully
saved. To read the data or to retrieve back the saved information, the process gets reversed. A
hard disk drive is susceptible to losing data if the particles of foreign material such as dust
particles, moisture molecules, etc. manage to enter the internal circuitry of the device, which
is why a backup of the data stored into a hard disk is usually preferred. This means that a hard
disk is a delicate device that requires proper and careful handling.
SOLID STATE DRIVE (SSD)
A solid state drive is non-volatile memory (NVM) computer hardware that stores data
without moving parts. An SSD is a memory storage device that implements integrated
circuits rather than mechanical components for storage. The integrated circuits reduce their
overall size and make them silent when working.
Non-volatile memory express (NVMe) is a logical-device interface protocol for accessing a
computer’s non-volatile storage media. NVMe is a standard specification used on SSD drives
so that each manufacturer does not have a unique device driver. NVMe SSDs utilize
Peripheral component interconnect express (PCIe or PCI express), which can handle the
multiple back-and-forth requests from OS to SSD. PCIe is a common high-speed connection
interface on the motherboard.

Working of SSD
An SSD reads and writes data to underlying interconnected flash memory chips made out
of silicon. Manufacturers build SSDs by stacking chips in a grid to achieve different
densities.

SSDs read and write data to an underlying set of interconnected flash memory chips. These
chips use floating gate transistors (FGTs) to hold an electrical charge, which enables the SSD
to store data even when it is not connected to a power source. Each FGT contains a single bit
of data, designated either as a 1 for a charged cell or a 0 if the cell has no electrical charge.

Every block of data is accessible at a consistent speed. However, SSDs can only write to
empty blocks. And although SSDs have tools to get around this, performance may still slow
over time.

SSDs use three main types of memory: single-, multi- and triple-level cells. Single-level cells
can hold one bit of data at a time -- a one or zero. Single-level cells (SLCs) are the most
expensive form of SSD, but are also the fastest and most durable. Multi-level cells (MLCs)
can hold two bits of data per cell and have a larger amount of storage space in the same
amount of physical space as a SLC. However, MLCs have slower write speeds. Triple-level
cells (TLCs) can hold three bits of data in a cell. Although TLCs are cheaper, they also have
slower write speeds and are less durable than other memory types. TLC-based SSDs deliver
more flash capacity and are less expensive than an MLC or SLC, albeit with a higher
likelihood for bit rot due to having eight states within the cell.

Advantages of SSDs
The benefits of SSDs over HDDs include:

 Faster read/write speeds. SSDs can access large files quickly.

 Quicker boot times and better performance. Because the drive does not need to
spin up as an HDD would, it is more responsive and provides better load
performance.
 Durability. SSDs are more shock-resistant and can handle heat better than HDDs
because they do not have moving parts.
 Power consumption. SSDs need less power to operate than HDDs due to their
lack of moving parts.
 Quieter. SSDs produce less audible noise because there are no moving or spinning
parts.
 Size. SSDs come in a variety of form factors whereas HDD sizes are limited.
Disadvantages of SSDs
Downsides that come with SSDs include:
 Cost. SSDs are more expensive than traditional HDDs.
 Life expectancy. Some SSDs, for example, those using NAND memory-flash
chips, can only be written a specified number of times that is typically less than
HDDs.
 Performance. Limitations on the number of write cycles cause SSDs to decrease
in performance over time.
 Storage options. Because of cost, SSDs are typically sold in smaller sizes.
 Data recovery. This time-consuming process can be expensive, as the data on
damaged chips may not be recoverable.
Types of SSD non-volatile memory
NAND and NOR circuitry differ in the type of logic gate they use. NAND devices use eight-
pin serial access to data. Meanwhile, NOR flash memory is commonly used in mobile
phones, supporting 1-byte random access.

Compared with NAND, NOR flash offers fast read times, but is generally a more expensive
memory technology. NOR writes data in large chunks, meaning it takes longer to erase and
write new data. The random-access capabilities of NOR are used for executing code, while
NAND flash is intended for storage. Most smartphones support both types of flash memory,
using NOR to boot up the operating system and removable NAND cards to expand the
device's storage capacity.

Types of NAND flash memory

SLC

SLC is an abbreviation of single-level-cell. It is an old type of NAND Flash as each cell can
represent only a single binary digit (bit). These are the most expensive form of SSD, but are
also the fastest and most durable.

This
MLC

Each Multi-Level Cell can represent 2 bits. These cells have less endurance than SLCs because
Write Cycles and ensure occur two times more than [Link] a larger amount of storage
space in the same amount of physical space as a SLC.

TLC

TLC stands for Triple-Level Cell. As it is obvious from the name, each cell stores 3 bits of
memories, which allows more data storage in the same footprint. Drives with TLC are mostly
used by enterprise and consumer level companies.

QLC

Each Quad-Level cell can represent up to 4 bits as the word “Quad” means “four”. The QLC
memory is the technology that delivers the per terabyte cost compared to the hard drive.
2D NAND Flash Memory

In this kind of memory, the storage cells are stacked horizontally making a two-dimensional
matrix. This type of memory and storage module is not manufactured in bulk because the
horizontal cells need more physical space resulting in the increased chip size. Hence, 2D
NAND Flash has scalability.2D NAND Flash is cheaper than the 3D NAND Flash. 2D NAND
Flash has a high Latency Time, but it uses more or less 50% less power than 3D NAND. This
kind of NAND Flash has more Flash Control than the 3D one.

3D NAND Flash Memory

In 3D NAND flash, the space is saved by constructing the memory cells vertically in a three-
dimensional matrix. This technique of manufacturing a NAND Memory storage chip saves
plenty of physical space, making the chip [Link] also allows the manufacturers to increase
the memory capacity by decreasing the chip size. These are the reasons why 3D NAND Flash
is more expensive than 2D flash memory. It is very difficult and expensive to manufacture 3D
NAND memory, and a single error can make the entire memory chip unusable.

Differences Between Hard Disk Drive (HDD) and Solid State Drive (SSD)

 Mechanical hard disks use magnetism to record data, similar to the magnetic tape
used to listen to music as a child. If we need to find a piece of data, the disk will rotate
to the location where the information is recorded, and the magnetic head will sense
the magnetism to read the data.
 Solid-state drives (SSD) are hard disks made of an array of solid-state electronic
memory chips. It consists of a control unit, a storage unit (FLASH chip, DRAM chip),
and a cache unit. Unlike mechanical hard disks, which consist of mechanical
components such as disks and magnetic heads, the entire SSD structure consists of
electronic chips and circuit boards instead of mechanical devices. According to the
definition of a solid-state drive, we can know the internal structure of a solid-state
drive, which actually is composed of three large master chips, flash memory particles,
and cache units, so next, let’s look at it one by one.

HDD SSD

HDD stands for Hard Disk Drive. SSD stands for Solid State Drive.

HDD contains moving mechanical parts, SSD does not contains, mechanical parts,
like the arm. only electronical parts like ICs.

HDD has longer R/W time. SSD has shorter R/W time..

HDD has higher latency. SSD has lower latency.

 HDD SSD

HDD supports fewer I/O operations per SSD supports more I/O operations per
second. second.

HDD is heavier in weight. SSD is lighter in weight.

HDD is larger in size. SSD is more compact in size.

In HDD the data transfer is sequential. In SSD the data transfer is random access.

HDD is less reliable due to possibility of

mechanical failure, like head crash and SSD is more reliable.
susceptibility to strong magnets.

HDD is cheaper per unit storage. SSD is costlier per unit storage.

HDD is older and more traditional. SSD is newer to use.

HDD can produce noise due to mechanical

SSD does not produces noise.
movements.

The availability of SSD is limited in terms

The availability of HDD in a variety of
of variety of storage capacities as compared
capacities.
to HDD.

It is more likely to breakdown after more

It is less likely to breakdown as compared to
uses because of the magnetic platters and
HDD because of no moving parts.
moving mechanical parts.

HDD drives are more established and A more recent kind of storage drive is an
traditional. SSD.

HDDs are more reliable for long-term SSDs are comparatively less reliable for
storage. long-term storage due to data leaks that can
 HDD SSD

occur if kept unpowered for more than a

year.

The data accessing speed is slower as The data accessing speed is much higher as
compared to SSD. compared to HDD.

HDD has fragmentation that’s why The SSD does not have fragmentation. The
performance suffers because of performance does not suffer because of
fragmentation. fragmentation.

SSDs are suitable for

HDDs are suitable for
 Fast data retrieval
 Extensive storage
 Laptop or desktop because of low
 Long-term storage
power consumption and size.