Module 1: Scientific

Approach to
Psychology;
Sensation, Attention
and Perception
FATHIMA SIYAD

Agenda

1 2 3 4 5
Psychology as Methods Sensation Attention Perception
a Science

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 Psychology
• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior
and mental processes.
• Behavior includes all of our outward or overt
actions and reactions, such as talking, facial
expressions, and movement.
• Mental processes refers to all the internal,
covert (hidden) activity of our minds, such as
thinking, feeling, and remembering’

Psychology as a Science
• To study behavior and mental processes in both animals and humans, researchers
must observe them.
• Whenever a human being observes anyone or anything, there’s always a
possibility that the observer will see only what he or she expects to see.
• Psychologists don’t want to let these possible biases cause them to make faulty
observations.
• They want to be precise and to measure as carefully as they can—so they use a
systematic approach to study psychology scientifically.
• They treat psychological phenomena as real and amenable to investigation
through scientific methods.
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 The science is rooted in the following assumptions:

Empiricism Determinism Parsimony

The concepts and This refers to the belief In order to describe
theories must be that everything that some phenomenon,
based on public happens has definite scientists use
evidence obtained causes. relatively few words
through observation and as simply as
possible.

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The scientific findings are believed to have the following

qualities:

Cumulative Verifiable Public

Any new work is based The results of scientific The scientific work is
on earlier work. studies are such that published and remains
they can be confirmed. available to everyone
The scientists should be who is interested in it.
able to replicate them Communicating the
by following the findings in the public
procedure used by the domain brings credibility
earlier researcher. to it and help furthering
the process of research.
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 The most important values and standards that are essential
components of the scientific method are:

A commitment to gathering and evaluating information

Accuracy about the world in as careful, precise, and error-free a
manner as possible.

A commitment to obtaining and evaluating such

Objectivity information in a manner as free from bias as humanly
possible.

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A commitment to accepting findings as accurate only

Skepticism after they have been verified over and over again,
preferably by many different scientists.

Open- A commitment to changing one’s views—even views

that are strongly held—in the face of evidence that
mindedness these views are inaccurate.

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 Goals of psychology
Description Explanation Control
Prediction
• What is Happening ? • Why is it Happening? • When will it Happen • How Can it be Changed?
• involves observing a • to come up with a Again? • The focus of control, or
behavior and noting tentative explanation • Determining what will the modification of
everything about it: what happen in the future some behavior, is to
is happening, where it change a behavior from
happens, to whom it an undesirable to a
happens, and under what desirable one.
circumstances it seems to
happen.

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On the basis of existing evidence, a theory is

formulated.

This theory helps to organize existing information and

also makes predictions about observable events.

Steps
in scientific These predictions, known as hypotheses, are then
tested by actual observations—by research.
investigation
If results of new observations are consistent with the
theory, confidence in it is increased. If they are not,
the theory is modified and further tests of its predictions
are performed.

Ultimately, the theory is either accepted as accurate or

rejected as inaccurate. Even if it is accepted as
accurate, however, it remains open to further
refinement as additional research is conducted.
 Theories: In science, frameworks for
explaining various events or processes.

Hypotheses: Testable predictions derived

from theories.

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Methods
 Methods

Introspection Case Study Correlation

Observation Survey

Introspection
• A method of self-observation
• Wilhelm Wundt
• A method in which trained individuals report in detail on their conscious
experiences in response to specific stimuli (e.g., sounds, optical illusions, other
visual stimuli) that are presented to them under carefully controlled conditions.
• It is the process of looking inward and reflecting on one’s own mental
processes—such as emotions, thoughts, sensations, or perceptions.
• It is not used as a primary scientific method today due to its limitations

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 • Provides direct access to personal, internal experiences.
Advantages • Helps in understanding subjective aspects of
consciousness.

• Results depend on the individual's self-report, which

can be inaccurate or biased.
Different people might report different experiences
Disadvantages
•

even under identical conditions.

• Mental processes cannot be verified externally.

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Observation
• Systematic Observation
• A basic method of science in which the natural world, or various events or
processes in it, are observed and measured in a very careful manner.

Types of Observation
❖ Naturalistic Observation
• A research method in which behavior is studied in the settings were it usually
occurs.
• Eg; Watching children play on a playground
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❖ Laboratory Observation (Controlled)
• A research method in which observation is made in a laboratory experiment.
• Eg: Observing Children's Problem-Solving Behavior, Strange Situation by Mary
Ainsworth

❖ Participant Observation
• The researcher becomes part of the group being studied
• Eg: A psychologist joining a support group to observe interactions

❖ Non-participant Observation
• The researcher observes from a distance, without involvement
• Watching classroom behavior from behind a one-way mirror
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• Provides real-world data.

• Useful for studying non-verbal behavior.
Advantages
• Can reveal patterns and social dynamics.

• Observer bias: The researcher's expectations can affect

interpretation.
Disadvantages • Hawthorne effect: People may change behavior if they
know they are being observed.
• Time-consuming and context-dependent.

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 Case Study
• A research method in which detailed information about individuals is used to
develop general principles about behavior.
• By far the most famous practitioner of the case method was Sigmund Freud, who
used a small number of cases as the basis for his famous theories of personality
and mental illness.
• When the behavior involved is very unusual, the case method can be quite
revealing.

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• Provides in-depth and detailed data

Advantages • Ideal for studying unique or rare conditions that can't be
replicated

• If the persons studied are unique, it can be misleading

to generalize from them to other human beings.
• Because researchers using the case method often have
Disadvantages repeated contact with the individuals they study, there
is the real risk that they will become emotionally
involved with these persons and so lose their scientific
objectivity, at least to a degree.
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 Survey
• A research method in which large numbers of people answer questions about
aspects of their views or their behavior.
• Usually through their responses to questionnaires
• Surveys are used for many purposes—to measure attitudes toward specific
issues, voting preferences, and consumer reactions to new products, to mention
just a few.
• Surveys can also be repeated over long periods of time in order to track changes
in public opinion or other aspects of behavior

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Requirements for conducting effective survey

❑Sampling—how the persons who will participate in the survey are selected.
• Unless these persons are representative of the larger population about which
predictions will be made, serious errors can result.
❑The way in which surveys are worded.
• Even changing a single word in a question can sometimes shift the meaning—and
strongly influence the results

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 • Information can be gathered quickly and efficiently from
many thousands of persons.
Advantages • since surveys can be constructed quickly, public opinion
on new issues can be obtained almost as soon as the
issues arise.

• Surveys provide only surface-level data

• Participants may lie or exaggerate, especially on
sensitive topics
Disadvantages • There’s no way to confirm the accuracy of what
someone says in a survey.
• Respondents may misinterpret or misunderstand
questions, leading to inaccurate answers.
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Correlation
• A research method in which researches attempt to determine whether, and to
what extent, different variables are related to each other.
• Eg: as people grow older, they often seem to gain weight
• The existence of a correlation between two variables can be very useful.
• This is so because when a correlation exists, it is possible to predict one variable
from information about one or more other variables.
• This involves making careful observations of each variable and then performing
statistical analyses to determine whether and to what extent the variables are
correlated—to what extent changes in one are related to changes in the other.

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• Correlations range from –1.00 to +1.00, and the more they depart from zero, the
stronger the correlation.
• The value is termed as correlation coefficient
❑Positive correlations indicate that as one variable increases, the other increases
too. (correlation coefficient = +)
• For instance, the greater the number of hours students study for their psychology
tests, the higher their grades tend to be.
❑ Negative correlations indicate that as one variable increases, the other
decreases. (correlation coefficient = -)
• For example, As job satisfaction decreases quitting increases.

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• Helps determine whether a relationship exists and how

strong it is
Advantages • Easy to calculate and interpret
• Provides a numerical value (-1 to +1), giving clarity on the
direction and strength of the relationship.

• Correlation only shows association, not cause and

effect.
Disadvantages • A few extreme values can significantly affect the
correlation coefficient, making results unreliable.

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 Experimental method
• A research method in which researchers systematically alter one or more
variables in order to determine whether such changes influence some aspect of
behavior.
• The experiment is a relatively powerful procedure that allows researchers to
detect cause and-effect relationships.
• A variable (usually denoted by letters or symbols) is a characteristic, number, or
quantity that takes different values in different situations.
• An independent variable is a condition or event that an experimenter varies in
order to see its impact on another variable.
• The independent variable is the variable that the experimenter controls or
manipulates.
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• The dependent variable is the variable that is thought to be affected by

manipulation of the independent variable.
• The independent variable is called independent because it is free to be varied by
the experimenter.
• The dependent variable is called dependent because it is thought to depend (at
least in part) on manipulations of the independent variable.
• Extraneous variables are any variables other than the independent variable that
seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study.
• A confounding of variables occurs when two variables are linked together in a
way that makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects.
• When an extraneous variable is confounded with an independent variable, a
researcher cannot tell which is having what effect on the dependent variable.

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• In an experiment the investigator typically assembles two groups of subjects who
are treated differently with regard to the independent variable.
• These two groups are referred to as the experimental group and the control group.
• The experimental group consists of the subjects who receive some special
treatment in regard to the independent variable.
• The control group consists of similar subjects who do not receive the special
treatment given to the experimental group.
• Experimenters use a variety of safeguards to control for extraneous variables.
• For instance, subjects are usually assigned to the experimental and control
groups randomly.
• Random assignment of subjects occurs when all subjects have an equal chance of
being assigned to any group or condition in the study.
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• When experimenters distribute subjects into groups through some random procedure,
they can be reasonably confident that the groups will be similar in most ways.
oPlacebo effects occur when participants’ expectations lead them to experience some
change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment.
• In pharmacology, a placebo is a substance that resembles a drug but has no actual
pharmacological effect.
• Placebos are used because researchers know that participants’ expectations can
influence their feelings, reactions, and behavior
oExperimenter Effects: Unintended effects, caused by researchers, on participants’
behavior.
• It can be reduced by using Double-Blind Procedure.
oDouble-Blind Procedure: Procedure in which the researchers who have contact with
participants do not know the hypothesis under investigation.
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Lab Experiments Field Experiments
• Conducted in controlled environments (e.g.,
a lab or simulated room). • Conducted in naturalistic settings (schools,
• Independent and dependent variables are workplaces, public spaces).
manipulated and measured precisely. • Still involves manipulation of variables but
• High level of experimental control and in real-world contexts.
replicability. • Less control over variables, but higher
• There is control over extraneous variables. ecological validity.
• It is easier to establish causal relationships. • Reflects real-life behavior better.
• It is highly replicable due to standardized
procedures.
• Low ecological validity (may not reflect real-
life behavior).

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• Precise control over variables can eliminate alternative

explanations for findings.
Advantages • Researchers are able to draw conclusions about cause-
and-effect relationships between variables.

• Confounding of variables must be avoided.

• Contrived laboratory situations are often artificial,
Disadvantages making it risky to generalize findings to the real world.
• Ethical concerns and practical realities preclude
experiments on many important questions.

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 Mixed Methods
• Mixed methods research integrates both quantitative and qualitative research
methods within a single study or across multiple related studies.
• Quantitative research means collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe
characteristics, find correlations, or test hypotheses.
• Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (eg,
text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences.
• Mixed method is used because it give a fuller picture.
▪ Numbers can show what is happening
▪ Words can explain why or how it is happening

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• Example: Let’s say a psychologist wants to study stress in college [Link]

might use a survey to measure stress levels in 100 students (quantitative). Then
do interviews with 10 students to understand their personal experiences with
stress (qualitative)
• Two types
1. Exploratory research aims to gain a general understanding of a topic, often
when little is known about it. First qualitative and then quantitative research is
conducted.
2. Explanatory research seeks to explain why something happens or how different
variables are related. First quantitative and then qualitative research is
conducted.

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 • Combines the strengths of both quantitative (numbers) and qualitative
(words) methods, leading to a more complete understanding of a
research problem.
Advantages • Allows researchers to explore complex phenomena from multiple
angles, which is especially useful in psychological research.
• Using multiple methods increases the validity of the results by cross-
verifying findings from different sources or approaches.

• Designing and conducting mixed methods research is often more

complex, requiring careful planning to align both types of data.
• Collecting and analyzing both qualitative and quantitative data can
Disadvantages be time-consuming and require more resources (staff, tools, time).
• Researchers need to be skilled in both qualitative and quantitative
analysis, which can be a barrier if training is limited.

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Sensation
 Psychophysics
• Sensation :The process that occurs when special receptors in the sense organs
are activated, allowing various forms of outside stimuli to become neural signals
in the brain.
• It is the stimulation of sense organs.
• Sensory receptors : specialized forms of neurons, the cells that make up the
nervous system.
Psychophysics
• the study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience.
• A particularly important contributor to psychophysics was Gustav Fechner

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Just noticeable difference

• Ernst Weber did studies trying to determine the smallest difference between two
weights that could be detected.
• His research led to the formulation known as Weber’s law of just noticeable
differences (jnd, or the difference threshold).
• Just noticeable difference : the smallest difference between two stimuli that is
detectable 50 percent of the time
• Weber’s law simply means that whatever the difference between stimuli might
be, jnd is always a constant.
[Link]

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 Absolute threshold
• Gustav Fechner expanded on Weber’s work and proposed about absolute
threshold
• Absolute threshold : the lowest level of stimulation that a person can consciously
detect 50 percent of the time the stimulation is present.
• Absolute thresholds define the boundaries of an organism’s sensory capabilities.
• Examples of Absolute Thresholds
[Link]

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Sense Threshold

Sight A candle flame at 30 miles on a clear, dark night

Hearing The tick of a watch 20 feet away in a quiet room

Smell One drop of perfume diffused throughout a three-room apartment

Taste 1 teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of water

Touch A bee’s wing falling on the cheek from 1 centimeter above

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 Perceptual defense
• Perceptual defense, also known as perceptual distortion or perceptual vigilance, is
a psychological phenomenon where our minds subconsciously filter or alter
sensory information to protect us from disturbing or anxiety-inducing stimuli.
• Subconscious Filtering of Information: Perceptual defense involves our brain
automatically screening out information that might be emotionally distressing or
threatening. It operates below our conscious awareness, shielding us from
potentially unsettling experiences.
• Selective Attention: Our minds tend to pay more attention to stimuli that are
consistent with our existing beliefs, values, or expectations while ignoring or
distorting information that contradicts them. This selective attention is a
fundamental aspect of perceptual defense.

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• Perceptual defense is often seen as an unconscious protective mechanism that

helps maintain our psychological well-being. It shields us from distressing or
conflicting information that could disrupt our mental equilibrium.
• Example: Imagine a heavy smoker being shown an anti-smoking ad. If perceptual
defense is at play, they may unconsciously ignore the health warnings or dismiss
the images of diseased lungs because they threaten their self-concept or habits.

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 Subliminal perception.
• Subliminal perception—the registration of sensory input without conscious
awareness
• In 1957 when an executive named James Vicary placed hidden messages such as
“Eat popcorn” in a film showing at a theater in New Jersey. The messages were
superimposed on only a few frames of the film, so they flashed by quickly and
imperceptibly. Nonetheless, Vicary claimed in the press that popcorn sales
increased by 58%, creating great public controversy
• Subliminal stimulation generally produces weak effects and are short lived.

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Attention

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 Attention is the means by which we actively
process a limited amount of information from the
enormous amount of information available
through our senses, our stored memories, and
our other cognitive processes.

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Factors Affecting Attention

I. Objective factors
• They are external factors related to the features of stimuli
No. Title Definition Example

1 Movement Moving object captures our attention Advertising: Moving billboards or video ads
easily compared to stationary object. tend to grab attention more effectively than
static images or print ads.

2 Intensity Bright things captures our attention. Brightly colored warning signs, like "Caution:
More intensity, more attention Wet Floor," capture attention and alert us to
potential hazards.

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3 Novelty Newness draws more attention A sudden, loud noise in a quiet room
will grab everyone's attention.

4 Size Extreme size always tend to catch Huge bulldozer, tiny Rat.
attention more than objects of average
levels.

5 Change Any change in objects of everyday life A person's new hairstyle, clothes, or
captures attention quickly. makeup captures attention

6 Repetition Any stimulus that is continuously sirens of ambulance & fire brigade
repeated, captures more attention

7 Clarity clearly observed object catch more High-definition images or videos

attention capture attention more than low-
resolution or blurry ones.

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8 Colour Colors tend to attract more attention Headlines in newspaper

than black/white

9 Contrast figures that are strikingly different A bright blue “Submit” button on a
from the background attract more clean white web page.
attention

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ll. Subjective factors
• They are internal factors related to the factors lies within the individual
No. Title Definition Example

1 Motives These relate to our biological or social when we are hungry, we notice even a faint
needs. These are powerful forces that smell of food
draws our attention.
2 Interest objects or events, which appear A rare or customized car grabs attention
interesting, are readily attended by due to its distinctive design or features.
individuals
3 Mental set Our set or readiness of mind is very before addressing anything serious the
important in attending to any stimulus addresser usually give a briefing like “lam
here to share a sad news” in order to create
a mental set.

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4 Emotional states Attention varies according to a current A person on their honeymoon will
emotional state notice and appreciate the romantic
atmosphere and details of their
surroundings.
5 Habit Attention is usually diverted to things an alcoholic will always have more
to which we are habituated attention towards bar

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 Phenomena associated with
attention
Set in Attention
• A set is a group of expectations that shape experience by making people
especially sensitive to specific kinds of information
• A set in attention is a temporary mental predisposition to perceive or respond to
stimuli in a particular way.
• It guides what we notice.

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Span of Attention
• The number of objects one can attend to at a brief expose (ie fraction of a second)
• This can be determined by the use of an instrument called tachistoscope.
• Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory
• Miller's magic number is 7±2

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Division of Attention
• also known as divided attention
• simultaneously focusing on multiple tasks or stimuli
• It involves allocating mental resources to different activities, which can lead to reduced
performance on each task due to the limited capacity of attention.
• While it might seem efficient, dividing attention can result in errors, slower response
times, and decreased overall productivity.
• Eg; listening to music while doing your homework.

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Distraction of Attention
• Distraction of attention refers to the redirection of focus away from a primary task or
object of attention due to various internal or external stimuli.
• It's essentially a disruption in the ability to concentrate or maintain focus on a specific
activity.
• Distraction is caused by: inability to pay attention; lack of interest in the object of
attention; or the great intensity, novelty or attractiveness of something other than the
object of attention.
• Distractions come from both external and internal sources.
• External distractions include factors such as visual triggers, social interactions, music,
text messages and phone calls.
• Internal distractions include hunger, fatigue, illness, worrying and daydreaming.

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Perception
 • Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory
information from our environment to give it meaning.

It is the method by which the sensations experienced at any given

moment are interpreted and organized in some meaningful
fashion.

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Top-down Vs. Bottom-up processes

Bottom-up processing
• Processing that begins with stimulation of the receptors
• emphasizes the importance of the stimulus in object recognition.
• Specifically, the physical stimuli from the environment are registered on the
sensory receptors.
• This information is then passed on to higher, more sophisticated levels in the
perceptual system
• Eg; When you smell something sweet and delicious, like cookies, you might
immediately recognize the scent and its source (the cookies) without needing to
know someone was baking them.
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Top-down processing
• emphasizes how a person’s concepts and higher-level mental processes influence
object recognition.
• Specifically, our concepts, expectations, and memory help in identifying objects.
• Our expectations at the higher (or top) level of visual processing will work their way
down and guide our early processing of the visual stimulus
• It is especially strong when stimuli are incomplete or ambiguous.
• Also, strong when a stimulus is registered for just a fraction of a second
• Eg; When thinking about your favorite movie, you can recall scenes and dialogues
without needing to rewatch it, as your brain uses past experiences and memory.

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 Gestalt principles
• also known as the laws of perception
• It describe how humans naturally organize visual elements into groups and
patterns.
• These principles help us understand how our brains simplify and make sense of
the world around us by perceiving objects as wholes rather than isolated parts.

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➢Figure-ground relationship
• the tendency to perceive objects, or figures, as existing on a background
• Reversible figures : visual illusions in which the figure and ground can be reversed.

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➢ Law of Proximity
▪ “nearness.”
▪ the tendency to perceive objects that are close to each other as part of the same
grouping
▪ physical or geographical nearness.

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➢ Law of Similarity
• the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the
same group
• When members of a sports team wear uniforms that are all the same color, it allows
people viewing the game to perceive them as one group even when they are scattered
around the field or court.

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➢ Law of Closure
• Closure is the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete.
• A talented artist can give the impression of an entire face with just a few cleverly
placed strokes of the pen or brush—the viewers fill in the details.

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➢ Law of Continuity
• the tendency to perceive things as simply as possible with a continuous pattern rather
than with a complex, broken-up pattern

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➢ Law of Contiguity
• the tendency to perceive two things that happen close together in time as being
related.
• Usually the first occurring event is seen as causing the second event.
• Eg; Ventriloquists* make vocalizations without appearing to move their own mouths but
move their dummy’s mouth instead. The tendency to believe that the dummy is doing
the talking is due largely to contiguity.

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Depth perception
• The capability to see the world in three dimensions
• Without it one would have a hard time judging how far away objects are.
• It seems to develop very early in infancy, if it is not actually present at birth.
• People who have had sight restored have almost no ability to perceive depth if
they were blind from birth.
• Depth perception seems to be present in infants at a very young age.
• Various cues exist for perceiving depth in the world.

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Monocular Cues
• Require the use of only one eye
• Monocular cues are often referred to as pictorial depth cues because artists can
use these cues to give the illusion of depth to paintings and drawings.
• Examples of these cues are:
1. Linear perspective
• The tendency for lines that are actually parallel to seem to converge on each other.
• Eg; When looking down a long interstate highway, the two sides of the highway
appear to merge together in the distance.

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2. Relative size
• when objects that people expect to be of a certain size appear to be
small and are, there fore, assumed to be much farther away.
• Movie makers use this principle to make their small models seem
gigantic but off in the distance

3. Overlap
• If one object seems to be blocking another object, people assume
that the blocked object is behind the first one and, therefore, farther
away.
• This cue is also known as interposition.

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4. Aerial (atmospheric) perspective:
• The farther away an object is, the hazier the object will
appear to be due to tiny particles of dust, dirt, and other
pollutants in the air, a perceptual cue called aerial
(atmospheric) perspective.
• This is why distant mountains often look fuzzy, and buildings
far in the distance are blurrier than those that are close.

5. Texture gradient
• The objects that are close are very distinctly textured, but in
farther, their texture becomes smaller and finer.

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6. Motion parallax
• Objects at different distances appear to move at different speeds as the
observer's viewpoint changes.
• Closer objects seem to move faster and in the opposite direction of the
observer's movement, while distant objects appear to move slower or not at all.

7. Accommodation
• The lens of the human eye is flexible and held in place by a series of muscles.
• The process of visual accommodation is the tendency of the lens to change its
shape, or thickness, in response to objects near or far away.
• The brain can use this information about accommodation as a cue for distance.
• Accommodation is also called a “muscular cue.”
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 Binocular cues
• these cues require the use of two eyes.
1. Convergence
• Refers to the rotation of the two eyes in their sockets to focus on a single object.
• Another muscular cue
• If the object is close, the convergence is pretty great (almost as great as crossing
the eyes).
• If the object is far, the convergence is much less.
• Hold your finger up in front of your nose, and then move it away and back again.

That feeling you get in the muscles of your eyes is convergence .

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2. Binocular disparity
• Because the eyes are a few inches apart, they don’t see exactly the same image.
• The brain interprets the images on the retina to determine distance from the
eyes.
• If the two images are very different, the object must be pretty close.
• If they are almost identical, the object is far enough away to make the retinal
disparity very small.
• You can demonstrate this cue for yourself by holding an object in front of your nose. Close one eye, note where the object is,
and then open that eye and close the other. There should be quite a difference in views. But if you do the same thing with an
object that is across the room, the image doesn’t seem to “jump” or move nearly as much, if at all.

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 Perceptual constancies
• Perceptual constancy: Our tendency to perceive physical objects
as unchanging despite shifts in the pattern of sensations these
objects induce.

Size Constancy:
• The tendency to perceive a physical object as having a constant
size even when the size of the image it casts on the retina
changes.
• Two factors seem to account for this tendency: size–distance
invariance and relative size
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• The principle of size–distance invariance suggests that when estimating the size
of an object, we take into account both the size of the image it casts on our
retina and the apparent distance of the object.
• From these data we almost instantly calculate the object’s size.
• We also notice the relative size of an object : A visual cue based on comparison
of the size of an unknown object to objects of known size.
Shape Constancy:
• The tendency to perceive a physical object as having a constant shape even
when the image it casts on the retina changes.
• For example, Flip a coin into the air: Although you continue to perceive the coin
as being round, the image that actually falls onto your retina constantly shifts
from a circle to various forms of an ellipse.

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 Brightness Constancy:
• The tendency to perceive objects as having a constant brightness when they are
viewed under different conditions of illumination
• Thus, we will perceive a sweater as dark green whether indoors or outdoors in
bright sunlight.

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Illusions
• An illusion is a perception that does not correspond to reality
• There are different types of illusions
➢ The Hermann grid
• an optical illusion characterized by "ghostly" grey dots that
appear at the intersections of a grid of white lines on a black
background
• straight edges are necessary for this illusion to occur, as the
illusion disappears when the edges of the grid lines are slightly
curved
• One explanation for this illusion is attributed to the responses
of neurons in the primary visual cortex, called “simple cells”
that respond best to bars of light of a specific.
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➢ Müller-Lyer Illusion
• features two lines with arrow like ends, and one appearing to be
longer than the other.
• In reality, both lines are equal in length.
• The explanation is that most people live in a world with lots of
buildings. Buildings have corners.
• When a person is outside a building, the corner of the building is
close to that person, while the walls seem to be moving away (like
the line with the angles facing inward).

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• building, the corner of the room seems to move away from the viewer while the walls
are coming closer (like the line with the angles facing outward).
• In their minds, people “pull” the inward-facing angles toward them like the outside
corners of a building, and they make the outward-facing angles “stretch” away from
them like the inside corners of the room

➢The moon illusion

• In which the moon on the horizon* appears to be much larger than the moon in the
sky
• One explanation for this is that the moon high in the sky is all alone, with no cues for
depth surrounding it.

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• But on the horizon, the moon appears behind trees and houses, cues for depth that
make the horizon seem very far away.
• The moon is seen as being behind these objects and, therefore, farther away from the
viewer.
• Because people know that objects that are farther away from them yet still appear
large are very large indeed, they “magnify” the moon in their minds—a misapplication
of the principle of size constancy.
• This explanation of the moon illusion is called the apparent distance hypothesis.

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➢Illusions of Motion
• Sometimes people perceive an object as moving when it is actually still.
• One example of is the autokinetic effect.
• In this effect, a small, stationary light in a darkened room will appear to
move or drift because there are no surrounding cues to indicate that the light
is not moving.
• Another is the stroboscopic motion seen in motion pictures, in which a rapid
series of still pictures will seem to be in motion.
• drawing little figures on the edges of a notebook and then flipping the pages
quickly will also produce this same illusion

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 • Another movement illusion related to stroboscopic motion is the phi phenomenon,
in which lights turned on in sequence appear to move.
• For example, if a light is turned on in a darkened room and then turned off, and
then another light a short distance away is flashed on and off, it will appear to be
one light moving across that distance.

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Colour perception
• There are two leading theories to explain our rich sense of color
I. Trichromatic Theory
• A theory of color perception suggesting that we have three types of cones, each
primarily receptive to different wavelengths of light, red, green or blue.
• According to trichromatic theory, the ability to perceive colors results from the
joint action of the three receptor types.
• Thus, light of a particular wavelength produces differential stimulation of each
receptor type, and it is the overall pattern of stimulation that produces our rich
sense of color.

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• Trichromatic theory, however, fails to account for certain aspects of color vision,
such as the occurrence of negative afterimages— sensations of complementary
colors that occur after one stares at a stimulus of a given color.
• For example, after you stare at a red object, if you shift your gaze to a neutral
background, sensations of green may follow. Similarly, after you stare at a
yellow stimulus, sensations of blue may occur.

II. Opponent-Process Theory

• The theory suggests that we posses six different types of neurons, each of which
is either stimulated or inhibited by red, green, blue, yellow, black, or white.
• Two of these cells, for example, handle red and green: One is stimulated by red
light and inhibited by green light, whereas the other is stimulated by green light
and inhibited by red.
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• This is where the phrase opponent process originates.

• Two additional types of cells handle yellow and blue; one is stimulated by yellow
and inhibited by blue, while the other shows the opposite pattern.
• The remaining two types handle black and white—again, in an opponent-process
manner.
• Opponent-process theory can help explain the occurrence of negative
afterimages.
• The idea is that when stimulation of one cell in an opponent pair is terminated,
the other is automatically activated.
• Thus, if the original stimulus viewed was yellow, the afterimage seen would be
blue.

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 • Each opponent pair is stimulated in different patterns by the three types of cones.
• It is the overall pattern of such stimulation that yields our complex and eloquent
sensation of color.

• Although these theories competed for many years, we now know that both are
necessary to explain our impressive ability to respond to color.
• Trichromatic theory explains how color coding occurs in the cones of the retina,
whereas opponent-process theory accounts for processing in higher-order nerve
cells

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Perceptual styles
• Perceptual styles are those different ways by which people view and understand
the stimulus information they take in from their environment.
• They will determine how a person perceives his or her environment.
• The perceptual style reflects what has been learned by a learner during the
process of studying or experience.
• We can foster better interpersonal relationships and make environments more
effective for learning by knowing the individual differences in perceiving.

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Auditory Visual Tactile
Focuses on what is • Focuses on what is Focuses on what is
• Focuses on moving
• •

heard seen touched and

Remembers 75% within contextual
Remembers 75% • manipulated
environment
•

heard seen Remembers by

• Remembers by doing
•

Distracted by note- • Summarizes with touching

• Distracted by note-
•

taking notes Takes both

taking
•

traditional and
visual notes

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Habituation
• tendency of the brain to stop attending to constant, unchanging information.
• The brain is primarily interested in changes in information.
• That’s why people don’t really “hear” the noise of the air conditioner unless it
suddenly cuts off, or the noise made in some classrooms, unless it gets very quiet
or someone else directs their attention toward it
• Sensory adaptation: tendency of sensory receptor cells to become less responsive
to a stimulus that is unchanging
• Eg: Foul Smell
• In habituation, the sensory receptors are still responding to stimulation, but the
lower centers of the brain are not sending the signals from those receptors to the
cortex
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 Extra sensory perception
• Extra Sensory Perception (ESP), often called the "sixth sense," refers to the
supposed ability to acquire information beyond the normal five senses (sight,
hearing, touch, taste, smell).
• While some believe it exists and can be harnessed, scientific analysis reveals a
lack of empirical evidence and methodological flaws in studies attempting to prove
its existence.
• ESP encompasses various abilities, including:
• Telepathy: Transferring thoughts or feelings between individuals.
• Clairvoyance: Gaining knowledge of objects or events without using the senses.
• Precognition: Knowing future events.
• Psychokinesis: Influencing physical objects with the mind.
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Critical Analysis of ESP:

• Lack of Scientific Evidence : Extensive scientific research, including meta-analyses,
has failed to provide conclusive evidence supporting the existence of ESP.
• Methodological Flaws: Many studies claiming to demonstrate ESP have been
criticized for methodological errors, such as sensory leakage or cheating, which
could account for seemingly successful results.
• Alternative Explanations: Some phenomena attributed to ESP can be explained by
cognitive biases, such as confirmation bias (seeking evidence to support pre-
existing beliefs), or by coincidence.
• Replicability Issues: Attempts to replicate ESP experiments often fail to produce
similar results, further undermining the credibility of the claims.
• Pseudoscience: Many scientists view ESP as a pseudoscience, as it lacks a clear
theoretical framework and relies on anecdotal evidence rather than empirical data.
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 Enhancing perceptual accuracy
• Enhancing perceptual accuracy involves improving one's ability to perceive and
interpret information from the environment, leading to more reliable and objective
understanding.
• This can be achieved through various strategies, including
• Active Listening: Paying close attention to what others are saying, both verbally
and nonverbally, helps in understanding their perspectives and intentions.
• Self-Awareness: Recognizing one's own biases, assumptions, and emotional state
can prevent them from clouding judgment and affecting perception.
• Empathy and Perspective-Taking: Attempting to understand situations from
another person's point of view can lead to a more nuanced and accurate
understanding.
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• Seeking Clarification: Asking questions and seeking feedback on interpretations

can help identify and correct misperceptions.
• Perceptual Checking: This involves describing what you perceive, asking for
clarification, and offering alternative interpretations to ensure accurate
understanding.
• Practice and Feedback: Engaging in tasks that require perceptual judgment and
receiving feedback on performance can significantly improve accuracy.
• Conscious Processing: Actively choosing to engage conscious processing when
interpreting information can lead to more accurate and less biased perceptions.

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Critical Analysis
• Recognizing Biases: Identifying and understanding common biases like stereotypes,
prejudice, and cultural influences can help mitigate their impact on perception.
• Questioning Assumptions: Examining the underlying assumptions that shape
perceptions can reveal potential distortions and inaccuracies.
• Considering Context: Recognizing that perceptions can be influenced by the context
in which they occur can lead to a more holistic and accurate understanding.
• Evaluating Information Sources: Being critical of the sources of information and
their potential biases can help in forming more objective judgments.
• Recognizing Sensory Limitations: Acknowledging the limitations of human senses
and the potential for sensory adaptation can prevent misinterpretations.

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