CHAPTER # 2 : KINEMATICS

Q#1: How a vector can be represented graphically?

Ans: General representation: Symbol used for a vector is a bold face letter such as A, v,

F and d etc. Also a vector is written as the letter with a small arrow over it, i.e. 𝐴⃗, 𝑣⃗, 𝐹⃗ , 𝑑⃗
The magnitude of a vector is given by italic letter without arrow head.
Graphical representation
A vector can be represented graphically by drawing a straight line with an arrow head at one end. The
length of line represents the magnitude of the vector quantity according to a suitable scale while the
direction of arrow indicates the direction of the vector.
Representation of direction

To represent the direction, two mutually perpendicular lines are required. We can draw one line to
represent east-west direction and the other line to represent north-south direction as shown in Fig.
The direction of a vector can be given with respect to these lines.

Mostly, we use any two lines which are perpendicular to each other.
X-axis: Horizontal line (x x´) is called x-axis.
Y-axis: Vertical line (y ý) is called y-axis.
Origin: The point where x and y axes meet is known as origin. The origin is usually denoted by O.
These axes are also called reference axes.
Drawing a vector
A vector is drawn starting from the origin of the reference axes towards the given direction. The
direction is usually given by an angle 𝛉 (theta) with x-axis. The angle with x-axis is always measured
from the right side of x-axis in the anti-clockwise direction.

Q#2: How vectors are added graphically by head to tail rule ?

Ans: Let us add two vectors v1 and v2 having magnitudes of 300 N and 400 N acting at angles of 300
and 600 with x-axis. By selecting a suitable scale 100 N = 1cm, we can draw the vectors as 600
shown in Fig.

To add these vectors, we apply a rule called head-to-tail rule, which states that:
To add a number of vectors, redraw their representative lines such that the head of one line coincides
with the tail of the other. The resultant vector is given by a single vector is given by a single vector
which is directed from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector.
Measured length of resultant vector is 6.8 cm. According to selected scale, magnitude of the resultant
vector v is 680 N and direction is angle 49° with x-axis.

We can find the resultant vector of more than two vectors by adding them with the same way applying
head-to-tail rule.

Q#3: Differentiate between (a) rest and motion (b) speed and velocity

Ans: Rest

If a body does not change its position with respect to its surroundings, it is said to be at rest.

e.g. A motorcyclist is standing on the road. He is at rest.

Motion

If a body continuously changes its position with respect to to its surroundings, it is said to be in
motion.

e.g. When the motorcyclist is driving he is in motion.

Speed
Distance covered in unit time which is known as speed.
Distance
Formula: Speed= Time
 𝑆
V =𝑇

Unit: The speed is a scalar quantity. The Sl unit of speed is m s-1 or km h-1.

Types of speed: a) Instantaneous speed b) average speed

Instantaneous speed: The speed of a vehicle that is shown by its speedometer at any instant is
called instantaneous speed.

Average speed: Total distance covered by a moving body in total time.

𝑆
Average speed = Total distance covered /Total time taken or Vav = 𝑇

Velocity
The net displacement of a body in unit time is called velocity.

Formula
Displacement
Average velocity = Time

d
Vav =t

Unit: Velocity is a vector quantity. The Sl unit of velocity is also m s-1 or km h-1.

e.g. a car moving towards north at the rate of 70 km h¹. To differentiate between speed and velocity,
we shall say that the speed of car is 70 km h¹ which is a scalar quantity. The velocity of the car is a
vector quantity whose magnitude is 70 km h¹ and is directed towards north.

Types of velocity. Uniform and non-uniform velocity.

Uniform velocity: The velocity is said to be uniform if the speed and direction of a moving body
does not change .e.g The example of a body moving with uniform velocity is the downward motion
of a paratrooper.

Non-uniform velocity: If the speed or direction or both of them change, it is known as variable
velocity or non-uniform velocity.

Q#4: Describe different types of motion. Also give examples.

Ans: Generally, there are three types of motion of bodies.

1. Translatory motion
2. Rotatory motion
 3. Vibratory motion

[Link] motion
If the motion of a body is such that every particle of the body moves uniformly in the same
direction, it is called tanslatory motion. For example, the motion of a train or a car is tanslatory
motion. Translatory motion can be of three types

Linear Motion
If the body moves along a straight line, it is called linear motion. e.g A freely falling body is the
example of linear motion.

Random Motion
If the body moves along an irregular path the motion is called random motion. e.g motion of a bee.

Circular Motion
The motion of a body along a circle is called circular motion. A Ferris wheel is an example of
circular motion.

[Link] motion
If each point of a body moves around a fixed point (axis), the motion of this body is called rotatory
motion.
For example, the motion of an electric fan, the drum of a washing machine dryer. And motion of a
top.

[Link] motion
When a body repeats its to and fro motion about a fixed position, the motion is called vibratory
motion. The motion of a swing is vibratory motion.

Q#5: Explain the difference between distance and displacement.

Ans: Distance
The distance is the length of actual path of the motion. It is a scalar quantity. And its unit is metre.
e.g: Let a person be travelling from Lahore to Multan in a car. On reaching Multan, he reads the
speedometer and notices that he has travelled a distance of 320 km. It is the distance travelled by
that person

Displacement
The displacement is the shortest distance between the initial and final positions of the motion and its
direction is from the initial position to the final position. It is a vector quantity. Its unit is metre.

e.g: Suppose a car travels from a position A to B. The curved line is the actual path followed by the
car. The displacement d is the straight line directed from A to B as indicated by the arrow head.

Q#6: What do gradient of distance-time graph and speed-time graph represent? Explain it by
drawing diagrams.

Ans: Definition

The gradient is the measure of slope of a line.

Explanation

Consider the distance-time graph of uniform speed. Select any two values of time t1 and t2. Draw
two vertical dotted lines at t1 and t2 on x-axis. These lines meet the graph at points P and Q. From
these points draw horizontal lines to meet y-axis at S1 and S2 respectively as shown in Fig.

Distance covered in this time interval is

 S2-S1 = S

Time taken

t2-t1 = t

The slope or gradient of the graph is the measure of tangent 𝛉 of the triangle RPQ:

Slope = RQ/ PR

S2−S1 𝑆
Slope = =𝑡
t2−t1

𝑆
Vav = 𝑡 , the average speed during the time interval t.
𝑆
also tan 𝛉 = 𝑡 = slope of graph line, therefore,

Gradient of the distance-Time graph is equal to the average speed of the body.

Gradient of the speed-Time graph

Now consider the speed-time graph. The speeds at times t1 and t2 are v1 and v2 respectively. The
change in speed in a time interval (t2-t1 ) is (v2-v1). Therefore,

v2−v1
Slope = Change in speed/ Total time takenOr Slope = t2−t1
∆v
Slope= 𝑡

∆v
But = a the average acceleration.
𝑡
Hence

Gradient of the speed-Time graph is equal to the average acceleration of the body.

This shows that when a car moves with constant acceleration, the velocity-time graph is a straight
line which rises through same height for equal intervals of time.

Above graph is redrawn to find its slope. The speed v1 at time t1 is the same as speed v2 at time t2,
hence, the change in speed is also zero.
v2−v1
v2-v1= 0. Thus, the slope = t2−t1 =0

When the speed of the object is constant, the speed-time graph is a horizontal straight line parallel to
time axis.

This shows that the acceleration of this motion is zero. It is the motion without the change in speed.

Q#7: Prove that area under speed-time graph is equal to distance covered by object.

Ans: Case I: when an object moves with constant speed

The distance moved by an object can also be determined by using its peed-time graph. For example,
figure shows that the object is moving with constant speed v. This distance can also be found by
calculating the area under the speed-time graph. The area under the graph for time interval t is the
area of rectangle of sides t and v. This area is shown shaded in Fig. and is equal to v x t.
Case II: When object moves with uniformly increasing speed.
Here, the speed of the object increases uniformly from 0 to v in time [Link] average speed is given by

Distance covered = average speed × time = ½ v xt.

If we calculate the area under speed-time graph, it is equal to the area of the right-angled triangle
shown shaded in Fig. The base of the triangle is equal to t and the perpendicular is equal to v.

Area of a triangle = ½ (perpendicular × base)

= ½ (v x t)

The area under the speed-time graph up to the time axis is numerically equal to the distance covered
by the object.

Q#8: Write down equations of motion and discuss steps to solve the problems for motion
under gravity.

Ans: Three equations of motion are used to solve problems for motion of bodies. If vi is the initial
velocity of the body, vf is the final velocity, t is the time taken, S is the distance covered and a is the
acceleration, then:
vf = vi + αt -------- (1)

S = vi t + ½ αt2 --------(2)
 2αS = vf2 – vi2 --------- (3)

Steps to solve problems for motion:

While applying these equations, the following assumptions are made:

(i) Motion is always considered along a straight line

(ii) Only the magnitudes of vector quantities are used.
(iii)Acceleration is assumed to be uniform.
(iv) The direction of initial velocity is taken as positive. Other quantities which are in the
direction of initial velocity are taken as positive. The quantities in the direction opposite to
the initial velocity are taken as negative.

Q#9: How equations of motion can be applied to the bodies moving under action of gravity?

Ans: Gravitational acceleration

When a body is falling freely under the action of gravity of the Earth, the acceleration acting on it is
the gravitational acceleration and is denoted by g. The direction of gravitational acceleration is
always downwards. Its value is 9.8 m s-2, but for convenience we shall use the value of g as 10 m s-
2
.

Since the freely falling bodies move vertically downwards in a straight line with uniform
acceleration g, so the three equations of motion can be applied to the motion of such bodies.

Equations of motion for freely falling bodies:

While applying equations of motion, the acceleration a is replaced by g. Thus, equations of motion
for freely falling bodies can be written as:

vf = vi + gt -------- (1)

S = vi t + ½ gt2 --------(2)

2αS = vf2 – vi2 --------- (3)

Steps to apply equations of motion on freely falling bodies:

It should be remembered that while using these equations, the following points should be
kept in mind:

(i) If a body is released from some height to fall freely, its initial velocity vi will be
taken as zero.
(ii) The gravitational acceleration g will be taken as positive in the downward
direction.
(iii) If a body is thrown vertically upward, the value of g will be negative and the final
velocity will be zero at the highest point.