1.
Design features
1.1 About human language
Language is a system of communication uniquely associated with humans and distinguished by its
capacity to express complex ideas. Notably, studies analysing the various features of human language
have informed our understanding of language as a distinctly human trait. Specifically, language is
thought to possess a highly structured system of encoding and representing concepts through either
speech sounds or manual gestures, depending on whether they are spoken or signed.
Likewise, studies which have attempted to methodically dissect this system of human communication
into various parts, or components, have informed our understanding of the reasons for the immense
expressive power of language.
We’ll start off with a featural analysis of what defines a language, followed by an evaluation of these
features with a specific focus on how human language can be compared to animal communication.
1.2 Hockett’s design features
In 1960, the linguistic anthropologist Charles Francis Hockett conducted a pioneering featural study of
language. In the study, he listed 13 design features that he deemed to be universal across the world’s
languages. More importantly, these features distinguished human language from animal
communication. While the first 9 features could also match primate communications, the last 4 were
solely reserved for human language. Later on, Hockett added another 3 features that he saw as unique
to human language. Thus, it can be said that human language share a general set of features that help
set it apart from communication among animals.
1.2.1 Vocal-Auditory Channel
With the exception of signed languages, natural language is vocally transmitted by speakers as speech
sounds and auditorily received by listeners as speech waves. Although writing and sign language both
utilize the manual-visual channel, the expression of human language primarily occurs in the vocal-
auditory channel.
1.2.2 Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception
Language signals (i.e. speech sounds) are emitted as waveforms, which are projected in all directions
(‘broadcasted into auditory space’), but are perceived by receiving listeners as emanating from a
particular direction and point of origin (the vocalising speaker).
1.2.3 Transitoriness
Language signals are considered temporal as sound waves rapidly fade after they are uttered; this
characteristic is also known as rapid fading. In other words, this temporal nature of language signals
requires humans to receive and interpret speech sounds at their time of utterance, since they are not
subsequently recoverable.
1.2.4 Interchangeability
Humans can transmit and receive identical linguistic signals, and so are able to reproduce any linguistic
message they understand. This allows for the interlocutory roles of ‘speaker’ and ‘listener’ to alternate
between the conversation’s participants via turn taking within the context of linguistic communication.
1.2.5 Total Feedback
Humans have an ability to perceive the linguistic signals they transmit i.e. they have understanding of
what they are communicating to others. This allows them to continuously monitor their actions and
output to ensure they are relaying what they are trying to express.
1.2.6 Specialization
Language signals are emitted for the sole purpose of communication, and not any other biological
functions such as eating. In other words, language signals are intentional, and not just a side effect of
another behaviour.
Contrasting example: Biological functions which may have a communicative side effect: such as a
panting dog which hangs out its tongue to cool off (biological), may simultaneously indicate to its
owner that it is feeling hot or thirsty (communicative).
1.2.7 Semanticity
Specific language signals represent specific meanings; the associations are ‘relatively fixed’. An example
is how a single object is represented by different language signals i.e. words in different languages. In
French, the word sel represents a white, crystalline substance consisting of sodium and chlorine atoms.
Yet in English, this same substance is represented by the word salt.
Likewise, the crying of babies may, depending on circumstance, convey to its parent that it requires
milk, rest or a change of clothes.
1.2.8 Arbitrariness
There is no intrinsic or logical connection between the form of specific language signals and the nature
of the specific meanings they represent. Instead, the signal and the meaning are linked by either
convention or instinct.
Contrasting example: Conveyance of aggression in crabs – strongly threatened crabs express their
potential intention to fight by raising their front claw, which is partially iconic given that crabs use their
craw pincers to attack prey and defend against predators.
1.2.9 Discreteness
Language signals are composed of basic units and are perceived as distinct and individuated. These
units may be further classified into distinct categories. These basic units can be put in varying order to
represent different meanings. The change in meaning is abrupt, and rarely continuous.
1.2.10 Displacement
Displacement also includes prevarication, which is the ability to lie or produce utterances which do not
correspond with reality. Language signals may be used to convey ideas about things not physically or
temporally present at the time of the communicative event such as a topic that is linked to the past or
future.
1.2.11 Productivity
Productivity is also called openness or creativity. It entails reflexiveness, the ability of language to be
used to talk about language. Humans can use language to understand and produce an indefinite number
of novel utterances.
1.2.12 Cultural Transmission
Although humans are born with the innate ability to learn language, they learn (a) particular linguistic
system(s) as their native language(s) from elders in their community. In other words, language is
socially transmitted from one generation to the next, and a child reared in isolation does not acquire
language.
1.2.13 Duality of Patterning
The discrete speech sounds of a language combine to form discrete morphological units, which do not
have meaning in itself. These morphemes have to be further combine to form meaningful words and
sentences.