Circuit Elements

• Voltage(and(Current(Sources
• Electrical(Resistance((Ohm’s(Law)
• Construc<on(of(a(Circuit(Model
• Kirchhoff’s(Laws
• Analysis(of(a(Circuit(Containing(Dependent
Source

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 Circuit(Elements
• When(we(speak(of(Circuit(Elements,(It(is(important(to(
differen<ate( between( the( physical( device( itself( and(
the( mathema<cal( model( which( we( will( use( to(
analyze(its(behavior(in(a(circuit.((
• We(will(use(the(expression(circuit(element(to(refer(to(
the(mathema&cal)model.(
• All(the(simple(circuit(elements(that(we(will(consider(
can( be( classified( according( to( the( rela<onship( of(
current( through( the( element( to( the( voltage( across(
the(element.
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 Five%ideal%basic%circuit%elements

Resistor

Inductor
Voltage source Current source

Active elements

Capacitor

Passive elements
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 Electrical%safety

The(electrical(energy(that(can(actually(cause(injury(is(due(to(electrical
(current(and(how(it(flows(through(the(body.(Why,(then,(does(the(sign
(warn(of(high(voltage?((
Because It is easier to determine voltages than currents.

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 Voltage(and(Current(Sources
• Ideal) voltage) source:( a( circuit( element( that(
maintains( a( prescribed( voltage( across( its(
terminals( regardless( of( the( current( flowing( in(
those(terminals.((
• Ideal) current) source:( a( circuit( element( that(
maintains( a( prescribed( current( through( its(
terminals( regardless( of( the( voltage( across(
those(terminals.((

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 Independent%Sources
• An( independent) source) establishes( a( voltage( or(
current( in( a( circuit( without( relying( on( voltages( or(
currents( elsewhere( in( the( circuit.( The% value% of% the
voltage% or% current% supplied% is% specified% by% the% value
of%the%independent%source%alone.

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 Example%#1

✔ ✔ ✗

Which are valid?

✗ ✔
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 Dependent%Sources
• A(dependent)source)establishes(a(voltage(or(current(
whose( value( depends( on( the( value( of( a( voltage( or(
current( elsewhere( in( the( circuit.( You% cannot% specify
the%value%of%a%dependent%source%unless%you%know%the
value%of%the%voltage%or%current%on%which%it%depends.
• Four(kind(of(controlled(sources,(
– currentTcontrolled(current(source,(CCCS;(
– voltageTcontrolled(current(source,(VCCS;(
– voltageTcontrolled(voltage(source,(VCVS;(
– currentTcontrolled(voltage(source,(CCVS(.(
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 The circuit symbols for
(a) An ideal dependent voltage-controlled
voltage source;
(b) An ideal dependent current-controlled
voltage source;
(c) An ideal dependent voltage-controlled
current source;
(d) An ideal dependent current-controlled
current source.

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 Example%#2

✗ ✔

Which are valid?

✔ ✗
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 Example%#3
• For(the(circuit(shown,((
– a)( ( What( value( of( vg is( required( in( order( for( the(
interconnec<on(to(be(valid?((
– b)( (For(this(value(of(vg,%find(the(power(associated(
with(the(8(A(source.((

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 SoluGon%for%Example%#3
• For(a),(we(have(
( vg = ib/4 = −8/4 = −2(V)
• For(b),(we(have
p = 8vg = 8 × (−2) = −16(W)

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 Electrical(Resistance((Ohm’s(Law)
• Resistance)is(the(capacity(of(materials(to(impede(the(
flow( of( current( or,( more( specifically,( the( flow( of(
electric( charge.( The( circuit( element( used( to( model(
this(behavior(is(the(resistor.)(
• The(linear(resistor(is(the(simplest(passive(element.(Its(
symbol(and(characteris<c(are(as(following:

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14
 Ohm’s%Law

Left: in the direction of the voltage drop across the resistor

Right: in the direction of the voltage rise across the resistor

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 Other%Forms%of%Ohm’s%Law
• Current(is(in(the(direc<on(of(the(voltage(drop(across
the(resistor

• Current( is( in( the( direc<on( of( the( voltage( rise( across
the(resistor

• Conductance:)the(reciprocal(of(the(resistance,(which
is( symbolized( by( the( leYer( G,( and( is( measured( in
Siemens((S)

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 Power%in%Different%Forms
Left:
P = vi = (iR)i = i2R
P = vi = v(v/R) = v2/R
Right:
P = −vi = −(−iR)i = i2R
P = −vi = −v(−v/R) = v2/R
The( equa<ons( for( LeZ( and( right( are( iden<cal( and( demonstrate( clearly( that,
%regardless%of%voltage%polarity%and%current%direcGon,(the(power(at(the(terminals
(of(a(resistor(is(posi<ve.(Therefore,(a(resistor(absorbs(power(from(the(circuit.

What’s the expression of power if we use conductance, rather than resistance?

See example 2.3 (P.55)

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 Example%#4

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 SoluGon%for%Example%#4
• For(a),(we(have(
R = vg/ig = 1 kV / 0.005 A = 200 kΩ
p = vgig = 1000 V × 0.005 A = 5 W(
• For(b),(we(have(
vg p/ig = 3 W / 0.075 A = 40 V
R = vg/ig = 40 V / 0.075 A = 533.3 Ω(
pabsorbed=pdelivered = 3 W(
• For(c),(we(have(
ig = (p/R)0.5= (0.48 W / 300 Ω)0.5 = 0.04 A = 40mA(
vg = (pR)0.5= (0.48 W × 300 Ω)0.5 = 12 V(
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 Construc<on(of(a(Circuit(Model

Flashlight

An ideal switch offers no resistance to the current when

it is in the ON state, but it offers infinite resistance to
current when it is in the OFF state.

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 • In(developing(a(circuit(model,(the(electrical
%behavior(of(each(physical(component(is(of
(primary(interest:(a(lamp,(a(coiled(wire,(and
(a(metal(case.(
• Circuit( models( may( need( to( account( for
( undesired( as( well( as( desired( electrical
(effects:((light(and(heat.(
The(arrangement(of
(flashlight(components • Modeling(requires(approxima<on.((

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 Example%#5
• The( voltage( and( current( are( measured( at( the(
terminals( of( the( device( illustrated( in( (a),( and( the(
values( of( vt% and( it% are( tabulated( in( (b).( Construct( a(
circuit(model(of(the(device(inside(the(box.((

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 SoluGon%for%Example%#5

Plo\ng( the( voltage( as( a( func<on( of( the In( terms( of( Ohm's( law,( the
( current( yields( the( graph( shown( in( (a).( The ( device( inside( the( box( behaves
(equa<on(of(the(line(in(this(figure(illustrates (like(a(4%Ω%resistor.
( that( the% terminal% voltage% is% directly
%proporGonal%to%the%terminal%current,(vt=4it.(

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 Kirchhoff’s(Law

A(node)is(a(point(where
( two( or( more( circuit
(elements(meet.(

Circuit(model(for(the(flashlight

Based(on(Ohm’s(law:

Ohm's%law%may%not%be%enough%to
%provide%a%complete%soluGon!

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• Kirchhoff's) current) law) (KCL):) The( algebraic( sum( of( all( the(
currents(at(any(node(in(a(circuit(equals(zero.((
• Kirchhoffs) voltage) law) (KVL):( The( algebraic( sum( of( all( the(
voltages(around(any(closed(path(in(a(circuit(equals(zero.((

Reference)direc&on)is)important!
KCL:(Assign(a(posi<ve(sign(to(a(current(leaving(a(node(requires
(assigning(a(nega<ve(sign(to(a(current(entering(a(node,(or(vice
(versa.(
KVL:(As(we(trace(a(closed(path,(assign(a(posi<ve(sign(to(a(voltage
(rise(requires(assigning(a(nega<ve(sign(to(a(voltage(drop,(or(vice
(versa.(

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 Circuit(model(for(the(flashlight
KCL

KVL

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 Example%#6

Use(Kirchhoff's(current(law((KCL)

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 SoluGon%for%Example%#6

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 Example%#7

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 SoluGon%for%Example%#7

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 Example%#8
• Use(Ohm's(law(and(Kirchhoff’s(laws(to(find(the(value(
of(R%in(the(circuit.((
vR

i1 i2
iR
v2

Kirchhoff’s laws: Ohm's law:

vR + 120 – 200 = 0 R = vR / iR
120 – v2 = 0 24 i1 = 120
iR – i1 – i2 = 0 8 i2 = v2 R=4Ω
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 Analysis(of(a(Circuit(Containing(
Dependent(Sources

KCL
KVL

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 Example%#9
a)( Use( Kirchhoffs( laws( and( Ohm's( law( to( find( the( voltage( vo as(
shown(in(the(Figure.((
b)(Show(that(your(solu<on(is(consistent(with(the(constraint(that(
the(total(power(developed(in(the(circuit(equals(the(total(power(
dissipated.((

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 SoluGon%for%Example%#9
By(using(Kirchhoff’s(voltage(law((KVL),(we(have

Then,(by(using(Ohm’s(law,(we(have

Please%check%the%power%balancing!

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(a) A human body with a voltage difference between one arm and
one leg.
(b) A simplified model of the human body with a voltage difference
between one arm and one leg.

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Physiological Reactions to Current Levels in Humans

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 Summary
• Ideal(voltage/current(sources(
• Independent/dependent(sources(
• Resistor(
• Ohm’s(law(
• In(series,(closed(path(
• Kirchhoff’s(voltage/current(law(

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