Md.

Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)

Reg: 3098; EEE-03

Root Finding Method

Root finding means finding the value of 𝒙 from equations.
If,
𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎; Here 𝒙 is the root and whole equation is a
function of 𝒙
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
With the help of ‘𝒚’ we need to find out root (location of 𝒙).

• Root of 𝒙: Root of 𝒙 means the value of ‘𝒙’ for which the value
of ‘𝒚’ is zero.

 Bisection Method of Root Finding:

There are two steps for bisection method,

1st step: Where is the root located?
 Multiplication of interval function is less than zero (negative)
If, 𝒂 and 𝒃 are the intervals then interval function will be,
𝒇(𝒂) & 𝒇(𝒃).
∴ 𝒇(𝒂) × 𝒇(𝒃) < 𝟎
This multiplication must be negative.

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

2nd step: Bisect the interval until finding the value.

𝒂+𝒃
𝒙𝟎 =
𝟐
𝐛−𝐚
𝐥𝐧( )
Number of Iteration required = 𝐭𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞
𝐥𝐧 𝟐

• Find the root of 𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎. Tolerance = 5 times.


Here,
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎

𝒇(𝟎) = 𝟎 − 𝟎 − 𝟏 = −𝟏 (negative)

𝒇(𝟏) = 𝟏 − 𝟏 − 𝟏 = −𝟏 (negative)

𝒇(𝟐) = 𝟖 − 𝟐 − 𝟏 = 𝟓 (positive)

Here, intervals are 1 and 2. Between 1 and 2 root is located.

𝟏+𝟐
𝒙𝟎 = = 𝟏. 𝟓
𝟐
𝒇(𝟏. 𝟓) = (𝟏. 𝟓)𝟑 − 𝟏. 𝟓 − 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 (positive)

𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟓
𝒙𝟏 = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝟐
𝒇(𝟏. 𝟐𝟓) = (𝟏. 𝟐𝟓)𝟑 − 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 − 𝟏 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟗 (negative)

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 + 𝟏. 𝟓
𝒙𝟐 = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟕𝟓
𝟐
𝒇(𝟏. 𝟑𝟕𝟓) = (𝟏. 𝟑𝟕𝟓)𝟑 − 𝟏. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 − 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐 (positive)

𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 + 𝟏. 𝟑𝟕𝟓
𝒙𝟑 = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟏
𝟐
𝒇(𝟏. 𝟑𝟏) = (𝟏. 𝟑𝟏)𝟑 − 𝟏. 𝟑𝟏 − 𝟏 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟏 (negative)

𝟏. 𝟑𝟏 + 𝟏. 𝟑𝟕𝟓
𝒙𝟒 = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟒
𝟐
𝒇(𝟏. 𝟑𝟒) = (𝟏. 𝟑𝟒)𝟑 − 𝟏. 𝟑𝟒 − 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟔 (positive)

The root may be located at 𝟏. 𝟑𝟒 point between 1 and 2.

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

➢ Bisection Method Table for [𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎]:

No of a b 𝒇(𝒂) 𝒇(𝒃) 𝒂+𝒃 𝒇(𝒙) Root

Iteration (negative) (positive) 𝒙 = (yes/No)
(negative) (positive) 𝟐

1 1 2 −1 5 1.5 0.875 No
2 1 1.5 −1 0.875 1.25 −0.29 No
3 1.25 1.5 −0.29 0.875 1.375 0.22 No
4 1.25 1.375 −0.29 0.22 1.31 −0.061 No
5 1.31 1.375 −0.061 0.22 1.34 0.066 yes

➢ Characteristics of Bisection Method:

1. It requires an initial interval where the root is known to exist.

2. It is a simple and reliable method for finding roots.

3. It guarantees convergence to a root within the specified interval.

4. It is a slow method compared to some other numerical methods.

5. It is applicable to both linear and nonlinear equations.

➢ Advantages and Disadvantages of Bisection Method:

Advantages:
1. The bisection method is simple and easy to implement.

2. It guarantees convergence to a root within a specified interval.

3. It is a reliable method that works for both continuous and

discontinuous functions.
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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

Disadvantages:
1. The bisection method can be slow compared to other numerical
methods.

2. It requires an initial interval where the root is known to exist.

3. It may not work efficiently for functions with multiple roots or

when the function is not well-behaved.

• False position Method / Regular-Falsi / Chord /

Chopping Method:


𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏
=
𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐

𝒙𝟎 − 𝒂 𝟎 − 𝒇(𝒂)
=
𝒂−𝒃 𝒇(𝒂) − 𝒇(𝒃)

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

𝒙𝟎 − 𝒂 𝒇(𝒂)
=−
𝒂−𝒃 𝒇(𝒂) − 𝒇(𝒃)

𝒇(𝒂)
𝒙𝟎 − 𝒂 = − (𝒂 − 𝒃)
𝒇(𝒂) − 𝒇(𝒃)

𝒇(𝒂). (𝒂 − 𝒃)
𝒙𝟎 = 𝒂 −
𝒇(𝒂) − 𝒇(𝒃)
𝒂. 𝒇(𝒂) − 𝒂. 𝒇(𝒃) − 𝒂. 𝒇(𝒂) + 𝒃. 𝒇(𝒂)
𝒙𝟎 =
𝒇(𝒂) − 𝒇(𝒃)

𝒃. 𝒇(𝒂) − 𝒂. 𝒇(𝒃)
∴ 𝒙𝟎 =
𝒇(𝒂) − 𝒇(𝒃)
Similarly,
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒚 − 𝒚𝟏
=
𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐

𝒙′𝟏 − 𝒙𝟎 𝟎 − 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 )
=
𝒙𝟎 − 𝒃 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) − 𝒇(𝒃)

𝒙′𝟏 − 𝒙𝟎 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 )
=−
𝒙𝟎 − 𝒃 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) − 𝒇(𝒃)

𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ). (𝒙𝟎 − 𝒃)
𝒙′𝟏 − 𝒙𝟎 = −
𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) − 𝒇(𝒃)
𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ). (𝒙𝟎 − 𝒃)
𝒙′𝟏 = 𝒙𝟎 −
𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) − 𝒇(𝒃)
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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

𝒙𝟎 . 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) − 𝒙𝟎 . 𝒇(𝒃) − 𝒙𝟎 . 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) + 𝒃. 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 )

𝒙′𝟏 =
𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) − 𝒇(𝒃)

𝒃. 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) − 𝒙𝟎 . 𝒇(𝒃)
∴ 𝒙′𝟏 =
𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) − 𝒇(𝒃)

➢ False Position Method Table for [𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎]:

No of a b 𝒇(𝒂) 𝒇(𝒃) 𝒃. 𝒇(𝒂) − 𝒂. 𝒇(𝒃) 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) Root
Iteration (negative) (positive) (negative) (positive) 𝒙𝟎 = 𝒇(𝒂) − 𝒇(𝒃) (yes/No)

1 1 2 −1 5 1.166 −0.58 No
2 1.166 2 −0.58 5 1.25 −0.296 No
3 1.25 2 −0.296 5 1.29 −0.143 No
4 1.29 2 −0.143 5 1.30 −0.103 No
5 1.30 2 −0.103 5 1.31 −0.061 yes

➢ Characteristics of False Position Method:

1. It requires an initial interval where the root is known to exist.

2. It is an iterative method that narrows down the possible range of

the root.

3. It uses linear interpolation to estimate the location of the root.

4. It is more efficient than the bisection method in terms of

convergence speed.

5. It may suffer from convergence issues if the function is not well-

behaved or has multiple roots.

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

➢ Advantages and Disadvantages of False Position

Method:

▪ Advantages:

1. The false position method is a reliable and robust numerical

method for finding roots.

2. It converges faster than the bisection method, making it more

efficient for many functions.

3. It can handle functions with multiple roots and is applicable to both

linear and nonlinear equations.

▪ Disadvantages:

1. The false position method may encounter convergence issues if the

function is not well-behaved or has steep slopes.

2. It requires an initial interval where the root is known to exist,

similar to the bisection method.

3. It involves more complex calculations compared to the bisection

method, making it less straightforward to implement.

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

➢ Difference Between Bisection Method and False Position

Method:
Bisection Method False Position Method
The bisection method divides the The false position method uses
interval in half at each iteration to linear interpolation to estimate
estimate the location of the root. the location of the root.
The bisection method guarantees The false position method does
convergence to a root within the not guarantee convergence.
interval.
The bisection method is more reliable The false position method may
and works for both continuous and encounter convergence issues
discontinuous functions. for certain functions.

The bisection method is simpler and It involves more complex

easier to implement compared to the calculations.
false position method.
The bisection method is slower but The false position method is
more robust. faster but may be less reliable
in certain cases.

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

• Newton Raphson Method:

∆𝒚 𝒅𝒚
∴ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛉 = = = 𝒚′
∆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 )
∆𝒚 𝒚𝟎 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒚′ = 𝒇′ (𝒙𝟎 ) = =
∆𝒙 ∆𝒙
𝒚𝟎 − 𝒚𝟏
𝒇′ (𝒙𝟎 ) =
∆𝒙
𝒇( 𝒙 𝟎 ) − 𝟎
∆𝒙 =
𝒇′ (𝒙𝟎 )
𝒇(𝒙𝟎 )
∴ ∆𝒙 =
𝒇′ (𝒙𝟎 )
∆𝒙 = 𝒙𝟎 − 𝒙𝟏
𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟎 − ∆𝒙
𝒇 (𝒙 )
∴ 𝒙𝟏 = 𝒙𝟎 − 𝒇′(𝒙𝟎 )
𝟎

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

➢ Newton Raphson Table for [𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎]:

𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙 − 𝟏
𝟐
𝒚′ = 𝒇′ (𝒙𝟎 ) = 𝟑𝒙 − 𝟏
No. of 𝒙𝟎 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) 𝒇′(𝒙𝟎 ) 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) 𝒇(𝒙𝒏 ) Root
Iteration 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝟎 − (yes/No)
𝒇′(𝒙𝟎 )

1 1 −1 2 1.5 0.875 No
2 1.5 0.875 5.75 1.34 0.066 No
3 1.34 0.066 4.38 1.32 −0.020 No
4 1.32 −0.020 4.22 1.32 −0.020 yes

𝒙𝒏 −𝒙𝟎
% Tolerance= | | × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒙𝒏
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏
% Tolerance= | | × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒙𝟐
𝒙𝟑 −𝒙𝟐
% Tolerance= | | × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒙𝟑

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

▪ 𝐄𝐱: 𝟐. 𝟒: − Find the positive root, between 0 and 1, of the

equation 𝒙𝒆𝒙 = 𝟏 to a tolerance of 0.05%

Given that,
𝒙𝒆𝒙 = 𝟏
 𝒙𝒆𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎

∴ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝒆𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎

𝒂 = 𝟎, 𝒃 = 𝟏

No of 𝒂 𝒃 𝒇(𝒂) 𝒇(𝒃) 𝒂+𝒃 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒕𝒐𝒍

𝒙𝒏 − 𝒙𝟎
Iteration 𝒙= =| | × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝟐 𝒙𝒏
1 0 1 −1 1.718 0.5 −0.175 100%
2 0.5 1 −0.175 1.718 0.75 0.587 33.33%
3 0.5 0.75 −0.175 0.587 0.625 0.167 20%
4 0.5 0.625 −0.175 0.167 0.562 −0.012 11.11%
5 0.562 0.625 −0.012 0.167 0.593 0.074 5.33%
6 0.562 0.593 −0.012 0.074 0.577 0.028 2.68%
7 0.562 0.577 −0.012 0.028 0.569 0.0065 1.31%
8 0.562 0.569 −0.012 0.0065 0.565 −0.0038 0.66%
9 0.565 0.569 −0.0038 0.0065 0.567 0.00126 0.33%
10 0.565 0.567 −0.0038 0.00126 0.566 −0.0031 0.17%
11 0.566 0.567 −0.0031 0.00126 0.566 −0.0017 0%

∴ 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐑𝐨𝐨𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝟔

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

▪ 𝐄𝐱: 𝟐. 𝟗: − Find a root of the equation 𝟒𝒆−𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎 by

regular-falsi method given that the root lies between 0 and 0.5

Given that,
 𝟒𝒆−𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎

 ∴ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟒𝒆−𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝟎

𝒂 = 𝟎, 𝒃 = 𝟎. 𝟓

No. of 𝒂 𝒃 𝒇(𝒂) 𝒇(𝒃) 𝒃. 𝒇(𝒂) − 𝒂. 𝒇(𝒃) 𝒇(𝒙)

Iteration 𝒙=
𝒇(𝒂) − 𝒇(𝒃)
1 0 0.5 −1 0.163 0.429 0.084
2 0 0.429 −1 0.084 0.395 0.038
3 0 0.395 −1 0.038 0.381 0.016
4 0 0.381 −1 0.016 0.375 0.007
5 0 0.375 −1 0.007 0.372 0.002
6 0 0.372 −1 0.002 0.371 0.0009
7 0 0.371 −1 0.0009 0.370 0.0002
8 0 0.370 −1 0.0002 0.370 −0.0003

∴ 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐑𝐨𝐨𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟎

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

▪ 𝐄𝐱: 𝟐. 𝟏𝟓: − Use Newton Raphson method to find a root of the

equation 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓 = 𝟎.

Given that,
𝒙𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓 = 𝟎
∴ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓 = 𝟎

∴ 𝒇′(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐 = 𝟎
No. of 𝒙𝟎 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) 𝒇′(𝒙𝟎 ) 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) 𝒇(𝒙𝒏 )
Iteration 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒙𝟎 −
𝒇′(𝒙𝟎 )

1 2 −1 10 2.1 0.061
2 2.1 0.061 11.23 2.094 0.00018
3 2.094 0.00018 11.16 2.094 16.6 × 10−9

∴ 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐑𝐨𝐨𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝟐. 𝟎𝟗𝟒

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

• Secant Method:
𝒙 𝟎 𝒇 𝟏 − 𝒙 𝟏 𝒇𝟎
∴ 𝒙𝟐 =
𝒇 𝟏 − 𝒇𝟎

➢ 𝐄𝐱: 𝟐. 𝟏𝟓: − Find a real root of the equation 𝐱 𝟑 − 𝟐𝐱 − 𝟓 = 𝟎 using

secant method.

 Let us start with,

𝒙𝟎 = 𝟐, 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟑
∴ 𝒇𝟎 = 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) = 𝒇(𝟐) = (𝟐)𝟑 − 𝟐(𝟐) − 𝟓 = −𝟏
∴ 𝒇𝟏 = 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 ) = 𝒇(𝟑) = (𝟑)𝟑 − 𝟐(𝟑) − 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟔

No. of 𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝒇𝟎 𝒇𝟏 𝒙𝟐 =
𝒙𝟎 𝒇𝟏 − 𝒙𝟏 𝒇𝟎 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 )
Iteration 𝒇𝟏 − 𝒇𝟎

1 2 3 −1 16 2.058 −0.3907
2 2.058 3 −0.3907 16 2.081 −0.1473
3 2.081 3 −0.1473 16 2.089 −0.054
4 2.089 3 −0.054 16 2.092 −0.0203
5 2.092 3 −0.0203 16 2.093 −0.010
6 2.093 3 −0.010 16 2.093 −0.006

∴ 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐑𝐨𝐨𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝟐. 𝟎𝟗𝟑

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

• Iteration Method:
𝑥3 + 𝑥2 − 1 = 0
𝑥3 + 𝑥2 = 1
𝑥 2 (𝑥 + 1) = 1
1
𝑥2 =
𝑥+1

1
𝑥=√
𝑥+1

1 1/2
𝑥=( )
𝑥+1
Now,

𝜑(𝑥 ) = 𝑥

𝟏 𝟏/𝟐
∴ 𝝋(𝒙) = ( )
𝒙+𝟏
1
−1
1 1 2
𝜑′(𝑥 ) = ( )
2 𝑥+1
𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟐
∴ 𝝋′(𝒙) = ( )
𝟐 𝒙+𝟏

If,
𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟐
𝝋′(𝒙) = |(
𝟐 𝒙+𝟏
) | < 𝟏 then this method is acceptable.

16
 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

➢ 𝐄𝐱: 𝟐. 𝟏𝟎: − Find a real root of the equation 𝐱 𝟑 = 𝟏 − 𝐱 𝟐 on the

interval [0,1] with an accuracy of 10−4 .
 Given that,
𝐱𝟑 = 𝟏 − 𝐱𝟐
x3 + x2 = 1
x 2 (x + 1) = 1
1
𝑥2 =
𝑥+1

1
𝑥=√
𝑥+1

1 1/2
𝑥=( )
𝑥+1

𝑥 = (𝑥 + 1)−1/2

𝜑(𝑥 ) = 𝑥

Now,
∴ 𝝋(𝒙) = (𝒙 + 𝟏)−𝟏/𝟐

′(𝒙)
𝟏 𝟑
−𝟐
∴𝝋 = − (𝒙 + 𝟏)
𝟐

No. of 𝒙 𝝋(𝒙) 𝝋′(𝒙)

Iteration
1 0 1 −0.5
2 1 0.707 −0.176
3 0.707 0.765 −0.224
4 0.765 0.752 −0.213
5 0.752 0.755 −0.215
6 0.755 0.755 −0.214

∴The required Root is 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝟓

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

Interpolation
✓ Newton Forward Interpolation
✓ Newton Backward Interpolation
✓ Lagrange’s Interpolation

➢ Newton Forward Interpolation:

▪ Problem-1:
𝒙 𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑
3 5 7 9
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 180 150 120 90
𝒚𝟎 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟑

What is 𝒇(𝒙) for 𝒙 = 𝟒?


Here,
𝒉 = 𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟓 − 𝟑 = 𝟐
Given that,
𝒙=𝟒

𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 𝟒 − 𝟑
𝐮= = = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝒉 𝟐

• Difference Table:

𝒙 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) ∆𝒚 ∆𝟐 𝒚 ∆𝟑 𝒚

3 180
−30
5 150 0
−30 0
7 120 0
−30
9 90
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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

Here,
𝒚𝟎 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎, ∆𝒚𝟎 = −𝟑𝟎, ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟎, ∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟎

Now,
𝒖 𝒖(𝒖 − 𝟏) 𝟐 𝒖(𝒖 − 𝟏)(𝒖 − 𝟐) 𝟑
𝒚 = 𝒚𝟎 + ∆𝒚𝟎 + ∆ 𝒚𝟎 + ∆ 𝒚𝟎
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑!

0.5 0.5(0.5−1) 0.5(0.5−1)(0.5−2)

𝒚 = 180 + (−30) + (0) + (0)
1 2 6

𝒚 = 180 − 15 + 0 + 0
∴ 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟔𝟓
For 𝒙 = 𝟒, 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟔𝟓

▪ Problem-2:
𝒙 𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑
0° 30° 60° 90°
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 0 0.5 0.867 1
𝒚𝟎 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟑

𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟓° =?

 Here,
𝒉 = 𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎° − 𝟎° = 𝟑𝟎°
Given that,
𝒙 = 𝟏𝟓°

𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 𝟏𝟓° − 𝟎
𝐮= = = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝒉 𝟑𝟎°

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

• Difference Table:

𝒙 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) ∆𝒚 ∆𝟐 𝒚 ∆𝟑 𝒚

0° 0
0.5
30° 0.5 −0.133
0.367 −0.101
60° 0.867 −0.234
0.133
90° 1

Here,
𝒚𝟎 = 𝟎, ∆𝒚𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟓, ∆𝟐 𝒚𝟎 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟑,
∆𝟑 𝒚𝟎 = −𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟏

Now,
𝒖 𝒖(𝒖 − 𝟏) 𝟐 𝒖(𝒖 − 𝟏)(𝒖 − 𝟐) 𝟑
𝒚 = 𝒚𝟎 + ∆𝒚𝟎 + ∆ 𝒚𝟎 + ∆ 𝒚𝟎
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑!

0.5 0.5(0.5−1)
𝒚=0+ (0.5) + (−0.133)
1 2

0.5(0.5 − 1)(0.5 − 2)
+ (−0.101)
6
𝒚 = 0 + 0.25 + 0.0166 − 6.3125 × 10−3
∴ 𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔
For 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟓°, 𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔

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Reg: 3098; EEE-03

➢ Newton Backward Interpolation:

▪ Problem-1:
𝒙 24 28 32 36 40
𝒚 28.06 30.19 32.75 34.94 40

What is the value of 𝒚 for 𝒙 = 𝟑𝟑?

 Given that,

𝒙 = 𝟑𝟑, 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟐𝟒, 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟐𝟖, 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎

Here,
𝒉 = 𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟐𝟖 − 𝟐𝟒 = 𝟒

𝒙 − 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 𝟑𝟑 − 𝟒𝟎
𝐯= = = −𝟏. 𝟕𝟓
𝒉 𝟒

➢ Difference Table:

𝒙 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) ∆𝒚 ∆𝟐 𝒚 ∆𝟑 𝒚 ∆𝟒 𝒚

24 28.06
2.13
28 30.19 0.43
2.56 −0.8
32 32.75 −0.37 4.04
2.19 3.24
36 34.94 2.87
5.06
40 40

𝟐
Here, 𝒚𝒏−𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎, ∆𝒚𝒏−𝟐 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟔, ∆ 𝒚𝒏−𝟑 = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟕,
∆𝟑 𝒚𝒏−𝟒 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟒, ∆𝟒 𝒚𝒏−𝟓 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟒

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

Now,
𝐯 𝐯(𝐯 + 𝟏) 𝟐
𝒚 = 𝒚𝒏−𝟏 + ∆𝒚𝒏−𝟐 + ∆ 𝒚𝒏−𝟑
𝟏! 𝟐!
𝐯(𝐯 + 𝟏)(𝐯 + 𝟐) 𝟑
+ ∆ 𝒚𝒏−𝟒
𝟑!
𝐯(𝐯 + 𝟏)(𝐯 + 𝟐)(𝐯 + 𝟑) 𝟒
+ ∆ 𝒚𝒏−𝟓
𝟒!

−1.75 −1.75(−1.75 + 1)
𝒚 = 40 + × 5.06 + × 2.87
1 2
−1.75(−1.75 + 1)(−1.75 + 2)
+ × 3.24
6
−1.75(−1.75 + 1)(−1.75 + 2)(−1.75 + 3)
+ × 4.04
24

𝒚 = 40 − 8.855 + 1.8834 + 0.1772 + 0.0690

∴ 𝒚 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟐𝟕𝟒𝟔

For 𝒙 = 𝟑𝟑; 𝒚 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟐𝟕𝟒𝟔

➢ Lagrange’s Interpolation:

▪ Problem-1:
𝒙 𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒
0 2 3 5 6
𝒚 5 7 8 10 12
𝒚𝟎 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟑 𝒚𝟒

What is the value of 𝒚 for 𝒙 = 𝟒?

 Here,

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟒 )

𝒚= 𝒚 +
(𝒙𝟎 − 𝒙𝟏 )(𝒙𝟎 − 𝒙𝟐 )(𝒙𝟎 − 𝒙𝟑 )(𝒙𝟎 − 𝒙𝟒 ) 𝟎
(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟒 )
𝒚 +
(𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟎 )(𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 )(𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟑 )(𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟒 ) 𝟏
(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟒 )
𝒚 +
(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟎 )(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 )(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟑 )(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟒 ) 𝟐
(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟒 )
𝒚 +
(𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟎 )(𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟏 )(𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 )(𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟒 ) 𝟑
(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟏 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 )(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟑 )
𝒚
(𝒙𝟒 − 𝒙𝟎 )(𝒙𝟒 − 𝒙𝟏 )(𝒙𝟒 − 𝒙𝟐 )(𝒙𝟒 − 𝒙𝟑 ) 𝟒

(4 − 2)(4 − 3)(4 − 5)(4 − 6)

𝒚= ×5+
(0 − 2)(0 − 3)(0 − 5)(0 − 6)
(4 − 0)(4 − 3)(4 − 5)(4 − 6)
×7+
(2 − 0)(2 − 3)(2 − 5)(2 − 6)
(4 − 0)(4 − 2)(4 − 5)(4 − 6)
×8+
(3 − 0)(3 − 2)(3 − 5)(3 − 6)
(4 − 0)(4 − 2)(4 − 3)(4 − 6)
× 10 +
(5 − 0)(5 − 2)(5 − 3)(5 − 6)
(4 − 0)(4 − 2)(4 − 3)(4 − 5)
× 12
(6 − 0)(6 − 2)(6 − 3)(6 − 5)

2 × 1 × −1 × −2 4 × 1 × −1 × −2
𝒚= ×5+ ×7+
−2 × −3 × −5 × −6 2 × −1 × −3 × −4
4 × 2 × −1 × −2 4 × 2 × 1 × −2
×8+ × 10
3 × 1 × −2 × −3 5 × 3 × 2 × −1
4 × 2 × 1 × −1
+ × 12
6×4×3×1

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𝒚 = 0.111 − 2.333 + 7.111 + 5.333 − 1.333

∴ 𝒚 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟖𝟗
When
𝒙 = 𝟒; 𝒚 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟖𝟗

➢ Curve Fitting by Polynomials:

To make 𝐧𝐭𝐡 degree function; 𝒏 + 𝟏 number of polynomial equations.
For example, to make 𝟐𝐧𝐝 degree function; we need 𝟑 polynomial
equations. To make 𝟑𝐫𝐝 degree function; we need 𝟒 polynomial
equations.
Let assume a function,
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐
Here this function is a 𝟐𝐧𝐝 degree function. To make this function
we need 𝟑 polynomial equations.
 Process of making polynomial equation:

𝒂 𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒂 𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂 𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 = ∑ 𝒚

𝒂𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟑 = ∑ 𝒙𝒚

𝒂 𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂 𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒂 𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟒 = ∑ 𝒙𝟐 𝒚

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
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➢ Example-4.6: Fit a polynomial of the second degree to the data

points (𝒙, 𝒚) given by (𝟎, 𝟏), (𝟏, 𝟔) and (𝟐, 𝟏𝟕).
 Here the polynomial is a second degree so the function will be
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐
Here given that,
𝒙 0 1 2
𝒚 1 6 17

Here the polynomial is 𝟐𝐧𝐝 degree so we need 3 polynomial

equations.

𝒂 𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒂 𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂 𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 = ∑ 𝒚

𝒂𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟑 = ∑ 𝒙𝒚

𝒂 𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂 𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒂 𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟒 = ∑ 𝒙𝟐 𝒚

𝒙 𝒚 𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒 𝒙𝒚 𝒙𝟐 𝒚
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 6 1 1 1 1 1 6 74
2 17 1 2 4 8 16 34 68
∑ 𝒚 ∑ 𝒙𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟑 ∑ 𝒙𝟒 ∑ 𝒙𝒚 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 𝒚
= 𝟐𝟒 = 𝟑 =𝟑 =𝟓 =𝟗 = 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟕𝟒

𝟑𝒂𝟎 + 𝟑𝒂𝟏 + 𝟓𝒂𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒

𝟑𝒂𝟎 + 𝟓𝒂𝟏 + 𝟗𝒂𝟐 = 𝟒𝟎
𝟓𝒂𝟎 + 𝟗𝒂𝟏 + 𝟏𝟕𝒂𝟐 = 𝟕𝟒
Solving these equations,
𝒂𝟎 = 𝟏, 𝒂𝟏 = 𝟐, 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟑

∴ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒙𝟐

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➢ Find polynomial for the data sets for

𝒙 1 3 4 6
𝒚 1 5 15 43

(𝒊) Straight line

(𝒊𝒊) Parabolic and
(𝒊𝒊𝒊) Cubic
 Solution-(𝒊):
For straight line,
The polynomial is a first degree so the function will be
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙

the polynomial is 𝟏𝐬𝐭 degree so we need 𝟐 polynomial equations.

𝒂 𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒂 𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟏 = ∑ 𝒚

𝒂𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 = ∑ 𝒙𝒚

𝒙 𝒚 𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝒚
𝟏 𝟏 1 1 1 1
𝟑 𝟓 1 3 9 15
𝟒 𝟏𝟓 1 4 16 60
𝟔 𝟒𝟑 1 6 36 258
∑𝒚 ∑ 𝒙𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝒚
= 𝟔𝟒 =𝟒 = 𝟏𝟒 = 𝟔𝟐 = 𝟑𝟑𝟒

𝟒 𝒂𝟎 + 𝟏𝟒 𝒂𝟏 = 𝟔𝟒
𝟏𝟒 𝒂𝟎 + 𝟔𝟐 𝒂𝟏 = 𝟑𝟑𝟒
Solving these equations we get,
𝒂𝟎 = −𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝟏; 𝒂𝟏 = 𝟖. 𝟒𝟔
∴ 𝒇(𝒙) = −𝟏𝟑. 𝟔𝟏 + 𝟖. 𝟒𝟔𝒙

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

 Solution-(𝒊𝒊):
For parabolic,
The polynomial is a second degree so the function will be
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐

the polynomial is 𝟐𝐧𝐝 degree so we need 𝟑 polynomial equations.

𝒂𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 = ∑ 𝒚

𝒂𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟑 = ∑ 𝒙𝒚

𝒂𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒂𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟒 = ∑ 𝒙𝟐 𝒚

𝒙 𝒚 𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒 𝒙𝒚 𝒙𝟐 𝒚
𝟏 𝟏 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝟑 𝟓 1 3 9 27 81 15 45
𝟒 𝟏𝟓 1 4 16 64 256 60 240
𝟔 𝟒𝟑 1 6 36 216 1296 258 1548
∑ 𝒚 ∑ 𝒙𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟑 ∑ 𝒙𝟒 ∑ 𝒙𝒚 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 𝒚
= 𝟔𝟒 = 𝟒 = 𝟏𝟒 = 𝟔𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎𝟖 = 𝟏𝟔𝟑𝟒 = 𝟑𝟑𝟒 = 𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟒

𝟒 𝒂𝟎 + 𝟏𝟒 𝒂𝟏 + 𝟔𝟐 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟔𝟒
𝟏𝟒 𝒂𝟎 + 𝟔𝟐 𝒂𝟏 + 𝟑𝟎𝟖 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟑𝟑𝟒
𝟔𝟐 𝒂𝟎 + 𝟑𝟎𝟖 𝒂𝟏 + 𝟏𝟔𝟑𝟒 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟒
Solving these equations,
𝒂𝟎 = 𝟒. 𝟑𝟖, 𝒂𝟏 = −𝟓. 𝟓𝟑, 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟐

∴ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟒. 𝟑𝟖 − 𝟓. 𝟓𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

 Solution-(𝒊𝒊𝒊):
For Cubic,
The polynomial is a second degree so the function will be
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒙𝟑

the polynomial is 𝟑𝐫𝐝 degree so we need 𝟒 polynomial equations.

𝒂𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒂𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 ∑ 𝒙𝟑 = ∑ 𝒚

𝒂𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒂𝟑 ∑ 𝒙𝟒 = ∑ 𝒙𝒚

𝒂𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒂𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒂𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟒 + 𝒂𝟑 ∑ 𝒙𝟓 = ∑ 𝒙𝟐 𝒚

𝒂𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒂𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟒 + 𝒂𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟓 + 𝒂𝟑 ∑ 𝒙𝟔 = ∑ 𝒙𝟑 𝒚

𝒙 𝒚 𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒 𝒙𝟓 𝒙𝟔 𝒙𝒚 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝒙𝟑 𝒚
𝟏 𝟏 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝟑 𝟓 1 3 9 27 81 243 729 15 45 135
𝟒 𝟏𝟓 1 4 16 64 256 1024 4096 60 240 960
𝟔 𝟒𝟑 1 6 36 216 1296 7776 46656 258 1548 9288
∑𝒚 ∑ 𝒙𝟎 ∑ 𝒙𝟏 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 ∑ 𝒙𝟑 ∑ 𝒙𝟒 ∑ 𝒙𝟓 ∑ 𝒙𝟔 ∑ 𝒙𝒚 ∑ 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 ∑ 𝒙𝟑 𝒚
= 𝟔𝟒 =𝟒 = 𝟏𝟒 = 𝟔𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎𝟖 = 𝟏𝟔𝟑𝟒 = 𝟗𝟎𝟒𝟒 = 𝟓𝟏𝟒𝟖𝟐 = 𝟑𝟑𝟒 = 𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟒 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟖𝟒

𝟒 𝒂𝟎 + 𝟏𝟒 𝒂𝟏 + 𝟔𝟐 𝒂𝟐 + 𝟑𝟎𝟖 𝒂𝟑 = 𝟔𝟒
𝟏𝟒 𝒂𝟎 + 𝟔𝟐 𝒂𝟏 + 𝟑𝟎𝟖 𝒂𝟐 + 𝟏𝟔𝟑𝟒 𝒂𝟑 = 𝟑𝟑𝟒
𝟔𝟐 𝒂𝟎 + 𝟑𝟎𝟖 𝒂𝟏 + 𝟏𝟔𝟑𝟒 𝒂𝟐 + 𝟗𝟎𝟒𝟒 𝒂𝟑 = 𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟒
𝟑𝟎𝟖 𝒂𝟎 + 𝟏𝟔𝟑𝟒 𝒂𝟏 + 𝟗𝟎𝟒𝟒 𝒂𝟐 + 𝟓𝟏𝟒𝟖𝟐 𝒂𝟑 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟖𝟒
Solving these equations,
𝒂𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐, 𝒂𝟏 = −𝟏𝟑. 𝟕𝟑, 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟖, 𝒂𝟑 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟔

∴ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟐 − 𝟏𝟑. 𝟕𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒. 𝟖𝒙𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝒙𝟑

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➢ Curve Fitting – Least Square Method:

Here the square of the error has to be minimum.

Total Error, 𝐄 = (+∆𝐄)𝟐 + (−∆𝐄)𝟐

1. Linear Least square method (Degree = 1; Staright Line)

2. Linear Least square method (Degree > 1; No Staright Line)

➢ Numerical Integration:
Rectangle Rule:

𝒃
Area= ∫𝒂 𝒇(𝒙). 𝒅𝒙 = (𝒃 − 𝒂) × 𝒇(𝒂)

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➢ Trapezoidal Rule:

𝟏
Area for trapezoid = × 𝒃 × {𝒇(𝒂𝟏 ) + 𝒇(𝒂𝟐 )}
𝟐

𝒃−𝒂
𝒉=
𝒏
𝟏
Area of 1st trapezoid = × 𝒉 × {𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) + 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 )}
𝟐

Here,
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)

𝟏
∴ Area of 1st trapezoid = × 𝒉 × (𝒚𝟎 + 𝒚𝟏 )
𝟐
𝟏
∴ Area of 2nd trapezoid = × 𝒉 × (𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 )
𝟐

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𝟏
∴ Area of 3rd trapezoid = × 𝒉 × (𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑 )
𝟐
𝟏
∴ Area of nth trapezoid = × 𝒉 × (𝒚𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒚𝒏 )
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
∴ Total area of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = × 𝒉 × (𝒚𝟎 + 𝒚𝟏 ) + × 𝒉 × (𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 ) ×
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝟏
𝒉 × (𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑 ) + ⋯ … + × 𝒉 × (𝒚𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒚𝒏 )
𝟐
𝟏
∴ Total area of 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = × 𝒉 × {(𝒚𝟎 + 𝒚𝒏 ) + 𝟐(𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑 +
𝟐
⋯ . +𝒚𝒏−𝟏 )

➢ Ex-
𝒙 𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒 𝒙𝟓 𝒙𝟔
0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋
6 3 2 3 6
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) 0 0.5 0.867 1 0.867 0.5 0
𝒚𝟎 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟑 𝒚𝟒 𝒚𝟓 𝒚𝟔

𝝅
𝒏 = 𝟔, Total Area of ∫𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 =?

Here,
𝒏=𝟔
𝒃 = 𝝅, 𝒂 = 𝟎
𝒃−𝒂 𝝅−𝟎 𝝅
𝒉= = =
𝒏 𝟔 𝟔
𝟏
Using Trapezoid Rule, Total area = × 𝒉 × {(𝒚𝟎 + 𝒚𝒏 ) + 𝟐(𝒚𝟏 +
𝟐
𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑 + 𝒚𝟒 + 𝒚𝟓 + 𝒚𝟔 )
𝟏 𝝅
= × × {(𝟎 + 𝟎) + 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟕 + 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟓)
𝟐 𝟔
∴ Total area = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟓𝟓

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𝝅
Original = ∫𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = [− 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝅 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎°] = −(−𝟏) + 𝟏 = 𝟐

∴ Error = 𝟐 − 𝟏. 𝟗𝟓𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟓

➢ Simpson’s One-Third (𝟏/𝟑)Rule:

𝑏 ℎ
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 −ℎ

𝑏 ℎ
𝑎𝑥 3 𝑏𝑥 2
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ( + + 𝑐𝑥)
𝑎 3 2 −ℎ
𝑏
𝑎ℎ3 𝑏ℎ2 −𝑎ℎ3 𝑏ℎ2
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ( + + 𝑐ℎ) − ( + − 𝑐ℎ)
𝑎 3 2 3 2
𝑏
𝑎ℎ3 𝑏ℎ2 𝑎ℎ3 𝑏ℎ2
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ( + + 𝑐ℎ + − + 𝑐ℎ)
𝑎 3 2 3 2
𝑏
2𝑎ℎ3
∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = ( + 2𝑐ℎ)
𝑎 3
𝒃
𝒉
∴ ∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝒙 = (𝟐𝒂𝒉𝟐 + 𝟔𝒄) … . . (𝒊)
𝒂 𝟑
∴ 𝒚𝟎 = 𝒇(𝒙𝟎 ) = 𝒂𝒙𝟎 𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙𝟎 + 𝒄 = 𝒂𝒉𝟐 − 𝒃𝒉 + 𝒄 … . . (𝒊𝒊)
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∴ 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 ) = 𝒂𝒙𝟏 𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙𝟏 + 𝒄 = 𝒂𝟎𝟐 − 𝒃𝟎 + 𝒄 = 𝒄 … . . (𝒊𝒊𝒊)

∴ 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 ) = 𝒂𝒙𝟐 𝟐 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄 = 𝒂𝒉𝟐 + 𝒃𝒉 + 𝒄 … . . (𝒊𝒗)
(𝒊𝒊) + (𝟒 × 𝒊) + (𝒊𝒗) =>
𝒚𝟎 + 𝟒𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒂𝒉𝟐 − 𝒃𝒉 + 𝒄 + 𝟒𝒄 + 𝒂𝒉𝟐 + 𝒃𝒉 + 𝒄
∴ 𝒚𝟎 + 𝟒𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟐𝒂𝒉𝟐 + 𝟔𝒄 … … (𝒗)
Putting (𝒗) into (𝒊) =>
𝒃
𝒉
∴ ∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝒙 = (𝒚 + 𝟒𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 )
𝒂 𝟑 𝟎

𝒃
𝒉 𝒉
∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝒙 = (𝒚𝟎 + 𝟒𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 ) + (𝒚𝟐 + 𝟒𝒚𝟑 + 𝒚𝟒 )
𝒂 𝟑 𝟑
𝒉 𝒉
+ (𝒚𝟒 + 𝟒𝒚𝟓 + 𝒚𝟔 ) + (𝒚𝟔 + 𝟒𝒚𝟕 + 𝒚𝟖 )
𝟑 𝟑
𝒉
+ ⋯ … . . + (𝒚𝒏−𝟐 + 𝟒𝒚𝒏−𝟏 + 𝒚𝒏 )
𝟑

𝒃
𝒉
∴ ∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝒙 = [(𝒚𝟎 + 𝒚𝒏 ) + 𝟐(𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟒 + 𝒚𝟔 + 𝒚𝟖 + ⋯ . 𝒚𝒏−𝟐 )
𝒂 𝟑
+ 𝟒(𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟑 + 𝒚𝟓 + 𝒚𝟕 + ⋯ … 𝒚𝒏−𝟏 )]

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Here,
𝒃−𝒂
𝒉= ; 𝒏 = 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫
𝒏

➢ Simpson’s Three-Eight(𝟑/𝟖) Rule:

𝒃
𝟑𝒉
∴ ∫ 𝒚 𝒅𝒙 = [(𝒚𝟎 + 𝒚𝒏 ) + 𝟑(𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟒 + 𝒚𝟓 + 𝒚𝟕 + ⋯ )
𝒂 𝟖
+ 𝟐(𝒚𝟑 + 𝒚𝟔 + 𝒚𝟗 + ⋯ )]
Here,
𝒃−𝒂
𝒉= ; 𝒏 = 𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐛𝐲 𝟑
𝒏

𝝅
➢ Ex: 𝒏 = 𝟏𝟐, Total Area of ∫𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 =?

𝒙 𝒙𝟎 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒 𝒙𝟓 𝒙𝟔 𝒙𝟕 𝒙𝟖 𝒙𝟗 𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟏 𝒙𝟏𝟐

0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 7𝜋 2𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 11𝜋 𝜋
12 6 4 3 12 2 12 3 4 6 12

𝒚 0 0.258 0.5 0.707 0.867 0.965 1 0.965 0.867 0.707 0.5 0.258 0
= 𝒇(𝒙)
𝒚𝟎 𝒚𝟏 𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟑 𝒚𝟒 𝒚𝟓 𝒚𝟔 𝒚𝟕 𝒚𝟖 𝒚𝟗 𝒚𝟏𝟎 𝒚𝟏𝟏 𝒚𝟏𝟐

 Here,

𝒏 = 𝟏𝟐
𝒃 = 𝝅, 𝒂 = 𝟎
𝒃−𝒂 𝝅−𝟎 𝝅
𝒉= = =
𝒏 𝟏𝟐 𝟏𝟐

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i. Using Trapezoid Rule,

𝟏
Total area = × 𝒉 × {(𝒚𝟎 + 𝒚𝟏𝟐 ) + 𝟐(𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑 + 𝒚𝟒 +
𝟐
𝒚𝟓 + 𝒚𝟔 + 𝒚𝟕 + 𝒚𝟖 + 𝒚𝟗 + 𝒚𝟏𝟎 + 𝒚𝟏𝟏 )
1 𝜋
= × × {(0 + 0) + 2(0.2588 + 0.5 + 0.7071 + 0.8660
2 12
+ 0.9659 + 1 + 0.9659 + 0.8660 + 0.7071 + 0.5
+ 0.2588)
= 𝟏. 𝟗𝟖𝟖𝟓

𝝅
Original = ∫𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = [− 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝅 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎°] = −(−𝟏) + 𝟏 = 𝟐

∴ Error = |𝟐 − 𝟏. 𝟗𝟖𝟖𝟓| = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟓

ii. Using Simpson’s One-Third (𝟏/𝟑)Rule,

𝟏
Total Area = × 𝒉[(𝒚𝟎 + 𝒚𝟏𝟐 ) + 𝟐(𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟒 + 𝒚𝟔 + 𝒚𝟖 + 𝒚𝟏𝟎 ) +
𝟑
𝟒(𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟑 + 𝒚𝟓 + 𝒚𝟕 + 𝒚𝟗 + 𝒚𝟏𝟏 )]
1 𝜋
= × × [(0 + 0) + 2(0.5 + 0.8660 + 1 + 0.8660 + 0.5)
3 12
+ 4(0.2588 + 0.7071 + 0.9659 + 0.9659 + 0.7071
+ 0.2588)]
= 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟑
𝝅
Original = ∫𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = [− 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝅 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎°] = −(−𝟏) + 𝟏 = 𝟐

∴ Error = |𝟐 − 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟑| = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟑

iii. Using Simpson’s Three-Eight(𝟑/𝟖) Rule,

𝟑
Total Area = × 𝒉[(𝒚𝟎 + 𝒚𝟏𝟐 ) + 𝟑(𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒚𝟒 + 𝒚𝟓 + 𝒚𝟕 +
𝟖
𝒚𝟏𝟎 + 𝒚𝟏𝟏 ) + 𝟐(𝒚𝟑 + 𝒚𝟔 + 𝒚𝟗 )]

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3 𝜋
= × × [(0 + 0)
8 12
+ 3(0.2588 + 0.5 + 0.8660 + 0.9659 + 0.9659 + 0.5
+ 0.2588) + 2(0.7071 + 1 + 0.7071)]
= 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟗

𝝅
Original = ∫𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = [− 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝅 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎°] = −(−𝟏) + 𝟏 = 𝟐

∴ Error = |𝟐 − 𝟐. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟗| = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟗

➢ Solution to Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE) of the

1st Order:
 Euler’s Method:

In this method,
𝒅𝒚
If 𝐏(𝒙𝟎 , 𝒚𝟎 ) = known, = known, 𝒙𝟏 is given then we can predict
𝒅𝒙
𝒚𝟏

𝒅𝒚 𝐀𝐂
=
𝒅𝒙 𝐁𝐂

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𝑑𝑦 𝑦1 − 𝑦0
=
𝑑𝑥 h
𝑑𝑦
h = 𝑦1 − 𝑦0
𝑑𝑥 𝒅𝒚
= 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚)
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒙
𝒚𝟏 = 𝒚𝟎 + 𝐡 𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟎
𝒅𝒙 𝒉=
𝒏
𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + h𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + h𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
∴ 𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒚𝒏 + 𝐡𝒇(𝒙𝒏 , 𝒚𝒏 )

Error will be more lesser if the slope is getting closer to the 𝒙𝟏

𝒅𝒚
➢ 𝐏(𝟏, 𝟏), = 𝟐𝒙, 𝒙𝟎 = 𝟏, 𝒚𝟎 = 𝟏, 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟓, 𝒏 = 𝟓, 𝒚𝟏 =?
𝒅𝒙

𝑥1 − 𝑥0 1.5 − 1
ℎ= = = 0.1
𝑛 5

𝒅𝒚
∴ 𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒚𝒏 + 𝐡 = 𝒚𝒏 + 𝐡[𝟐𝒙𝒏 ]
𝒅𝒙

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𝐧 𝒙𝒏 𝒚𝒏 𝒚𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥
0 1 1 1
1 1.1 1.2 1.21
2 1.2 1.42 1.44
3 1.3 1.66 1.69
4 1.4 1.92 1.96
5 1.5 2.2 2.25

Error = |𝒚𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 − 𝒚𝐧 | = |2.25 − 2.2| = 0.05

➢ Euler’s Method (Runge-Kutta) 𝐑𝐊 𝟏 Method:

𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒚𝒏 + 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝒏 , 𝒚𝒏 )

➢ Euler’s Modified Method (Runge-Kutta) 𝐑𝐊 𝟐 Method:

𝒚𝒏+𝟏 ∗ = 𝒚𝒏 + 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝒏 , 𝒚𝒏 )

𝒉
𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒚𝒏 + [𝒇(𝒙𝒏 , 𝒚𝒏 ) + 𝒇(𝒙𝒏+𝟏 , 𝒚𝒏+𝟏 ∗ )]
𝟐

➢ (Runge-Kutta) 𝐑𝐊 𝟒 Method:
𝑲𝟏 = 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝒏 , 𝒚𝒏 )
𝒉 𝑲𝟏
𝑲𝟐 = 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝒏 + , 𝒚𝒏 + )
𝟐 𝟐
𝒉 𝑲𝟐
𝑲𝟑 = 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝒏 + , 𝒚𝒏 + )
𝟐 𝟐
𝑲𝟒 = 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝒏 + 𝒉, 𝒚𝒏 + 𝑲𝟑 )
𝟏
𝑲 = [𝑲𝟏 + 𝟐𝒌𝟐 + 𝟐𝑲𝟑 + 𝑲𝟒 ]
𝟔

∴ 𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒚𝒏 + 𝑲

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

𝑑𝑦
➢ Exercise: = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 and 𝑦(0) = 1. Find, 𝑦(0.02) and 𝑦(0.04)
𝑑𝑥
 Given that,
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑥2 + 𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑦(0) = 1
∴ 𝑥0 = 0, 𝑦0 = 1

𝑦(0.02) = ?
∴ 𝑥1 = 0.02

𝑦(0.04) = ?
∴ 𝑥2 = 0.04

Here,
𝒏=𝟐

𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 − 𝟎
∴𝒉= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝟐

𝒚𝒏+𝟏 ∗ = 𝒚𝒏 + 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝒏 , 𝒚𝒏 )

𝒉
𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒚𝒏 + [𝒇(𝒙𝒏 , 𝒚𝒏 ) + 𝒇(𝒙𝒏+𝟏 , 𝒚𝒏+𝟏 ∗ )]
𝟐

𝒚𝟏 ∗ = 𝒚𝟎 + 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝟎 , 𝒚𝟎 )

𝑦1 ∗ = 1 + 0.02 × (02 + 1)
∴ 𝒚𝟏 ∗ = 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐

𝒉
𝒚𝟏 = 𝒚𝟎 + [𝒇(𝒙𝟎 , 𝒚𝟎 ) + 𝒇(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ∗ )]
𝟐
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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

0.02 2
𝑦1 = 1 + [(0 + 1) + (0.022 + 1.02)]
2
∴ 𝒚𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟐

Now,
𝒚𝟐 ∗ = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 )

𝑦2 ∗ = 1.0202 + 0.02 × (0.022 + 1.0202)

∴ 𝒚𝟐 ∗ = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟔

𝒉
𝒚𝟐 = 𝒚𝟏 + [𝒇(𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 ) + 𝒇(𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 ∗ )]
𝟐

0.02
𝑦2 = 1.0202 + [(0.022 + 1.0202) + (0.042 + 1.0406)]
2
∴ 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟖

𝒏 𝒙𝟎 𝒚𝟎
0 0 1

1 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏
0.02 1.0202

2 𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
0.04 1.0408

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

𝑑𝑦
➢ Exercise: 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 , = −𝑦 and 𝑦(0) = 1. Find, 𝑦(0.02) = ?
𝑑𝑥
 Given that,
𝑑𝑦
= −𝑦
𝑑𝑥

𝑦(0) = 1
∴ 𝑥0 = 0, 𝑦0 = 1

𝑦(0.02) = ?
∴ 𝑥1 = 0.02

Here,
𝒏=𝟏

𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 − 𝟎
∴𝒉= = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
𝟏

✓ Solving with 𝐑𝐊 𝟏 Method:

𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒚𝒏 + 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝒏 , 𝒚𝒏 )

𝒚𝟏 = 𝒚𝟎 + 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝟎 , 𝒚𝟎 )
𝒚𝟏 = 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 × (−𝟏) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖

𝐧 𝒙𝒏 𝒚𝒏 𝒚𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥
0 0 1 1
1 0.02 0.98 0.9801

∴ 𝒚(𝟎. 𝟎𝟐) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖

Error = |𝒚𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 − 𝒚𝐧 | = |0.9801 − 0.98| = 0.0001

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
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✓ Solving with 𝐑𝐊 𝟐 Method:

𝒚𝒏+𝟏 ∗ = 𝒚𝒏 + 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝒏 , 𝒚𝒏 )

𝒚𝟏 ∗ = 𝒚𝟎 + 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝟎 , 𝒚𝟎 )

𝒚𝟏 ∗ = 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 × (−𝟏) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖
𝒉
𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒚𝒏 + [𝒇(𝒙𝒏 , 𝒚𝒏 ) + 𝒇(𝒙𝒏+𝟏 , 𝒚𝒏+𝟏 ∗ )]
𝟐

ℎ
𝑦1 = 𝑦0 + [𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ∗ )]
2
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐
∴ 𝒚𝟏 = 𝟏 + [−𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖] = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟎𝟐
𝟐

𝒏 𝒙𝟎 𝒚𝟎 𝒚𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥
0 0 1 1

1 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏 0.9801
0.02 0.9802

∴ 𝒚(𝟎. 𝟎𝟐) = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟎𝟐

Error = |𝒚𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 − 𝒚𝐧 | = |0.9801 − 0.9802| = 0.0001

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

✓ Solving with 𝐑𝐊 𝟒 Method:

𝑲𝟏 = 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝒏 , 𝒚𝒏 )
∴ 𝑲𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 × (−𝟏) = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟐

𝒉 𝑲𝟏
𝑲𝟐 = 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝒏 + , 𝒚𝒏 + )
𝟐 𝟐

0.02 −0.02
𝐾2 = 0.02 × 𝑓(0 + ,1 + )
2 2
𝐾2 = 0.02 × 𝑓(0.01, 0.99)

∴ 𝑲𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 × (−𝟎. 𝟗𝟗) = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟖

𝒉 𝑲𝟐
𝑲𝟑 = 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝒏 + , 𝒚𝒏 + )
𝟐 𝟐
0.02 −0.0198
𝐾3 = 0.02 × 𝑓(0 + ,1 + )
2 2
𝐾3 = 0.02 × 𝑓(0.01, 0.9901)

∴ 𝑲𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 × (−𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟎𝟏) = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟖𝟎𝟐

𝑲𝟒 = 𝒉𝒇(𝒙𝒏 + 𝒉, 𝒚𝒏 + 𝑲𝟑 )

𝐾4 = 0.02 × 𝑓(0 + 0.02, 1 − 0.019802)

𝐾4 = 0.02 × 𝑓(0.02, 0.9802)

∴ 𝑲𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 × (−𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟎𝟐) = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟔

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𝟏
𝑲=[𝑲 + 𝟐𝒌𝟐 + 𝟐𝑲𝟑 + 𝑲𝟒 ]
𝟔 𝟏
1
𝐾 = [−0.02 + 2(−0.0198) + 2(−0.019802) − 0.0196]
6

∴ 𝑲 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟖

∴ 𝒚𝒏+𝟏 = 𝒚𝒏 + 𝑲
∴ 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒚𝟎 + 𝑲 = 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗𝟖 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟎𝟏

Error = |𝒚𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 − 𝒚𝐧 | = |0.9801 − 0.9801| = 0

➢ Solution to Simultaneous Equations:

 Direct Method (Gauss Elimination)
 Iteration Method (Jacobi Iteration; Gauss-Seidal Iteration)

▪ Gauss Elimination Method:

𝒙 + 𝒚 − 𝒛 = −𝟐 … … . (𝒊)
𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚 + 𝒛 = 𝟓 … … . (𝒊𝒊)
−𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛 = 𝟏 … … . (𝒊𝒊𝒊)
From these equations we get,
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟐
(𝟐 −𝟏 𝟏) 𝟓
−𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
Following Echelon rule,
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟐 𝑹′𝟐 = 𝟐𝑹𝟏 − 𝑹𝟐
(𝟎 𝟑 −𝟑) −𝟗
𝟎 𝟑 𝟏 −𝟏 𝑹′𝟑 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟑

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟐
(𝟎 𝟑 −𝟑) −𝟗 𝑹′𝟑 = 𝑹𝟐 − 𝑹𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 −𝟒 −𝟖

𝑹𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟐 𝑹′𝟐 =
𝟑
(𝟎 𝟏 −𝟏) −𝟑
𝑹𝟑
𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝑹′𝟑 =
−𝟒

Now,
𝒙 + 𝒚 − 𝒛 = −𝟐 … … . (𝒊)
𝒚 − 𝒛 = −𝟑 … … . (𝒊𝒊)
𝒛 = 𝟐 … … . (𝒊𝒊𝒊)
∴𝒛=𝟐
𝒚 − 𝒛 = −𝟑
𝒚 = −𝟑 + 𝒛 = −𝟑 + 𝟐
∴ 𝒚 = −𝟏
𝒙 + 𝒚 − 𝒛 = −𝟐
𝒙 − 𝟏 − 𝟐 = −𝟐
𝒙 − 𝟑 = −𝟐
𝒙 = −𝟐 + 𝟑
∴𝒙=𝟏
∴ 𝒙 = 𝟏; 𝒚 = −𝟏; 𝒛 = 𝟐

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

▪ Jacobi Iteration Method:

𝟒𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 − 𝟐𝒛 = 𝟎 … … . (𝒊)
𝒙 − 𝟑𝒚 − 𝒛 = 𝟕 … … . (𝒊𝒊)
𝟑𝒙 − 𝒚 + 𝟒𝒛 = 𝟓 … … . (𝒊𝒊𝒊)
From (𝒊),
𝟒𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 − 𝟐𝒛 = 𝟎
𝟒𝒙 = −𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛
−𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛
𝒙= … . . (𝒊𝒗)
𝟒
From (𝒊𝒊),
𝒙 − 𝟑𝒚 − 𝒛 = 𝟕
−𝟑𝒚 = 𝟕 − 𝒙 + 𝒛
𝟕−𝒙+𝒛
𝒚= … … (𝒗)
−𝟑
From (𝒊𝒊𝒊),
𝟑𝒙 − 𝒚 + 𝟒𝒛 = 𝟓
𝟒𝒛 = 𝟓 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒚
𝟓 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒚
𝒛= … … . (𝒗𝒊)
𝟒
Initial Guess,
𝒙(𝟏) = 𝟎
𝒚(𝟏) = 𝟎
𝒛(𝟏) = 𝟎
From (𝒊𝒗),
−𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛 𝟎
𝒙= = =𝟎
𝟒 𝟒
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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

From (𝒗),
𝟕−𝒙+𝒛 𝟕−𝟎+𝟎
𝒚= = = −𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑
−𝟑 −𝟑
From (𝒗𝒊),
𝟓 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒚 𝟓 − 𝟎 + 𝟎
𝒛= = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝟒 𝟒
Next Iteration,
From (𝒊𝒗),
−𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛 (−𝟐 × −𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑) + (𝟐 × 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓)
𝒙= = = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟗𝟏
𝟒 𝟒
From (𝒗),
𝟕 − 𝒙 + 𝒛 𝟕 − 𝟎 + 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝒚= = = −𝟐. 𝟕𝟓
−𝟑 −𝟑
From (𝒗𝒊),
𝟓 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒚 𝟓 − 𝟎 − 𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝒛= = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔
𝟒 𝟒
Next Iteration,
From (𝒊𝒗),
−𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛 (−𝟐 × −𝟐. 𝟕𝟓) + (𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔)
𝒙= = = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟎𝟖
𝟒 𝟒
From (𝒗),
𝟕 − 𝒙 + 𝒛 𝟕 − 𝟏. 𝟕𝟗𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔
𝒚= = = −𝟏. 𝟗𝟓𝟖
−𝟑 −𝟑
From (𝒗𝒊),
𝟓 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒚 𝟓 − (𝟑 × 𝟏. 𝟕𝟗𝟏) − 𝟐. 𝟕𝟓
𝒛= = = −𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟎
𝟒 𝟒
∴ 𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟎𝟖; 𝒚 = −𝟏. 𝟗𝟓𝟖; 𝒛 = −𝟎. 𝟕𝟖𝟎

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

▪ Gauss-Seidal Iteration Method:

𝟒𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 − 𝟐𝒛 = 𝟎 … … . (𝒊)
𝒙 − 𝟑𝒚 − 𝒛 = 𝟕 … … . (𝒊𝒊)
𝟑𝒙 − 𝒚 + 𝟒𝒛 = 𝟓 … … . (𝒊𝒊𝒊)
From (𝒊),
𝟒𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 − 𝟐𝒛 = 𝟎
𝟒𝒙 = −𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛
−𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛
𝒙= … . . (𝒊𝒗)
𝟒

From (𝒊𝒊),
𝒙 − 𝟑𝒚 − 𝒛 = 𝟕
−𝟑𝒚 = 𝟕 − 𝒙 + 𝒛
𝟕−𝒙+𝒛
𝒚= … … (𝒗)
−𝟑
From (𝒊𝒊𝒊),
𝟑𝒙 − 𝒚 + 𝟒𝒛 = 𝟓
𝟒𝒛 = 𝟓 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒚
𝟓 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒚
𝒛= … … . (𝒗𝒊)
𝟒
Initial Guess,
𝒙(𝟏) = 𝟎
𝒚(𝟏) = 𝟎
𝒛(𝟏) = 𝟎

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

From (𝒊𝒗),
−𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛 𝟎
𝒙= = =𝟎
𝟒 𝟒
From (𝒗),
𝟕−𝒙+𝒛 𝟕−𝟎+𝟎
𝒚= = = −𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑
−𝟑 −𝟑
From (𝒗𝒊),
𝟓 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒚 𝟓 − 𝟎 − 𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝒛= = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔
𝟒 𝟒
Next Iteration,
From (𝒊𝒗),
−𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛 (−𝟐 × −𝟐. 𝟑𝟑𝟑) + (𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔)
𝒙= = = 𝟏. 𝟓
𝟒 𝟒
From (𝒗),
𝟕 − 𝒙 + 𝒛 𝟕 − 𝟏. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔
𝒚= = = −𝟐. 𝟎𝟓𝟓
−𝟑 −𝟑
From (𝒗𝒊),
𝟓 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒚 𝟓 − (𝟑 × 𝟏. 𝟓) − 𝟐. 𝟎𝟓𝟓
𝒛= = = −𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟖
𝟒 𝟒
Next Iteration,
From (𝒊𝒗),
−𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛 (−𝟐 × −𝟐. 𝟎𝟓𝟓) + (𝟐 × −𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟖)
𝒙= = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑
𝟒 𝟒
From (𝒗),
𝟕 − 𝒙 + 𝒛 𝟕 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟖
𝒚= = = −𝟏. 𝟗𝟐𝟔
−𝟑 −𝟑

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

From (𝒗𝒊),
𝟓 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝒚 𝟓 − (𝟑 × 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑) − 𝟏. 𝟗𝟐𝟔
𝒛= = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟑
𝟒 𝟒
∴ 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑; 𝒚 = −𝟏. 𝟗𝟐𝟔; 𝒛 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒𝟑

➢ Numerical Solutions to Partial Differential Equation (PDE):


General second order Liner Partial Differential Equation:

𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
𝑨 𝟐 +𝑩 +𝑪 𝟐+𝑫 +𝑬 + 𝑭𝒖 = 𝑮
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
Where 𝑨, 𝑩, 𝑪, 𝑫, 𝑬, 𝑭 and 𝑮 are the functions of 𝒙 and 𝒚

➢ Laplace’s Equation:
From this equation,
𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
𝑨 𝟐 +𝑩 +𝑪 𝟐+𝑫 +𝑬 + 𝑭𝒖 = 𝑮
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
Here, 𝑨 = 𝟏; 𝑩 = 𝟎; 𝑪 = 𝟏; 𝑫 = 𝟎; 𝑬 = 𝟎; 𝑭 = 𝟎; 𝑮 = 𝟎
𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏 𝟐 𝒖
∴ + =𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

Quantity of heat entering the face 𝑷𝑺 in time ∆𝒕,

𝝏𝒖
= −𝑲𝜶∆𝒚 [ ] ∆𝒕
𝝏𝒙 𝒙
Here,
𝑲 = Temperature co-efficient of the plate
𝜶 = Thickness of the plate
𝒙 = Position of experiment
∆𝒕 = Time taken by the system
𝒖 = The function of temperature at any distance 𝒙 of any time 𝒕

Quantity of heat leaving the face 𝑸𝑹 in time ∆𝒕,

𝝏𝒖
= −𝑲𝜶∆𝒚 [ ] ∆𝒕
𝝏𝒙 𝒙+∆𝒙
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
∴ Heat Gain = −𝑲𝜶∆𝒚 [ ] ∆𝒕 − {−𝑲𝜶: ∆𝒚 [ ] ∆𝒕}
𝝏𝒙 𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝒙+∆𝒙

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= 𝐾𝛼∆𝑦 [ ] ∆𝑡 − 𝐾𝛼∆𝑦 [ ] ∆𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝑥+∆𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑥
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
∴ Heat Gain = 𝑲𝜶∆𝒚∆𝒕 {[ ] −[ ] }
𝝏𝒙 𝒙+∆𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝒙

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

Now,
Quantity of heat entering the face 𝑷𝑸 in time ∆𝒕,
𝝏𝒖
= −𝑲𝜶∆𝒙 [ ] ∆𝒕
𝝏𝒚 𝒚

Quantity of heat leaving the face 𝑺𝑹 in time ∆𝒕,

𝝏𝒖
= −𝑲𝜶∆𝒙 [ ] ∆𝒕
𝝏𝒚 𝒚+∆𝒚

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
∴ Heat Gain = −𝑲𝜶∆𝒙 [ ] ∆𝒕 − {−𝑲𝜶∆𝒙 [ ] ∆𝒕}
𝝏𝒚 𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝒚+∆𝒚

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
= 𝐾𝛼∆𝑥 [ ] ∆𝑡 − 𝐾𝛼∆𝑥 [ ] ∆𝑡
𝜕𝑦 𝑦+∆𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝑦

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
∴ Heat Gain = 𝑲𝜶∆𝒙∆𝒕 {[ ] −[ ] }
𝝏𝒚 𝒚+∆𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝒚

∴ Total Heat Gain

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
= 𝑲𝜶∆𝒚∆𝒕 {[ ] − [ ] } + 𝑲𝜶∆𝒙∆𝒕 {[ ] −[ ] }
𝝏𝒙 𝒙+∆𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝒚+∆𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝒚

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
𝑲𝜶∆𝒙∆𝒚∆𝒕 {[ ] − [ ] } 𝑲𝜶∆𝒙∆𝒚∆𝒕 {[𝝏𝒚] −[ ] }
𝝏𝒚 𝒚
𝝏𝒙 𝒙+∆𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝒙 𝒚+∆𝒚
= +
∆𝒙 ∆𝒚

∴ Total Heat Gain

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
{[ ] − [ ] } {[𝝏𝒚] −[ ] }
𝝏𝒚 𝒚
𝝏𝒙 𝒙+∆𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝒙 𝒚+∆𝒚
= 𝑲𝜶∆𝒙∆𝒚∆𝒕 +
∆𝒙 ∆𝒚
[ ]

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

Here, Total volume = 𝜶 ∆𝒙 ∆𝒚

Mass = Density × Volume
∴ 𝒎 = 𝝆 × 𝜶 ∆𝒙 ∆𝒚
The heat raises in the plate = 𝒎𝒔∆𝒖 = 𝝆 × 𝜶 ∆𝒙 ∆𝒚𝒔∆𝒖

∴ Total Heat Gain,

𝝆 × 𝜶 ∆𝒙 ∆𝒚𝒔∆𝒖 =

𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒖
{[ ] − [ ] } {[𝝏𝒚 ] −[ ] }
𝝏𝒚 𝒚
𝝏𝒙 𝒙+∆𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝒙 𝒚+∆𝒚
𝑲𝜶∆𝒙∆𝒚∆𝒕 +
∆𝒙 ∆𝒚
[ ]
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
{[ ] − [ ] } {[𝜕𝑦 ] −[ ] }
𝜕𝑦 𝑦
∆𝑢 𝐾 𝜕𝑥 𝑥+∆𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝑦+∆𝑦
= +
∆𝑡 𝜌𝑠 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
[ ]
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
{[ ] − [ ] } {[𝜕𝑦 ] −[ ] }
𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝑲
∆𝑢 𝜕𝑥 𝑥+∆𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑥 𝑦+∆𝑦
=𝑎 + 𝒂=
∆𝑡 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 𝝆𝒔
[ ]
∆𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖
= 𝒂 [ 𝟐 + 𝟐]
∆𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

At steady state condition,

∆𝒖
=𝟎
∆𝒕
𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖
∴ 𝟎 = 𝒂 [ 𝟐 + 𝟐]
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖
∴ + =𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐
This is the Laplace Equation

➢ Difference Approximation to Derivatives:

Here, Outside points are called Boundary points and Inside points
are called Mesh points
In terms of Boundary point = 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒉, 𝒚 + 𝒋𝒌
𝒊 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … …
In terms of Mesh point = 𝒖𝒊,𝒋 𝒋 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … …

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

Now,
for 𝑿 − axis,
𝒖𝒊+𝟏,𝒋 − 𝒖𝒊,𝒋
𝒖𝒙 =
𝒉
Or,
𝒖𝒊,𝒋 − 𝒖𝒊−𝟏,𝒋
𝒖𝒙 =
𝒉
Or,
𝒖𝒊+𝟏,𝒋 − 𝒖𝒊−𝟏,𝒋
𝒖𝒙 =
𝟐𝒉
for 𝒀 − axis,
𝒖𝒊,𝒋+𝟏 − 𝒖𝒊,𝒋
𝒖𝒚 =
𝒌
Or,
𝒖𝒊,𝒋 − 𝒖𝒊,𝒋−𝟏
𝒖𝒚 =
𝒌
Or,
𝒖𝒊,𝒋+𝟏 − 𝒖𝒊,𝒋−𝟏
𝒖𝒚 =
𝟐𝒌

From Laplace Transform we get,

𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖
+ =𝟎
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐
Here,
𝝏𝟐 𝒖 𝝏𝟐 𝒖
= 𝒖𝒙𝒙 and = 𝒖𝒚𝒚
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐

∴ 𝒖𝒙𝒙 + 𝒖𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

𝒖𝒊−𝟏,𝒋 − 𝟐𝒖𝒊,𝒋 + 𝒖𝒊+𝟏,𝒋

𝒖𝒙𝒙 =
𝒉𝟐
And
𝒖𝒊,𝒋−𝟏 − 𝟐𝒖𝒊,𝒋 + 𝒖𝒊,𝒋+𝟏
𝒖𝒚𝒚 =
𝒌𝟐
For Square,
𝒉=𝒌

𝒖𝒊−𝟏,𝒋 − 𝟐𝒖𝒊,𝒋 + 𝒖𝒊+𝟏,𝒋

𝒖𝒙𝒙 =
𝒉𝟐
And
𝒖𝒊,𝒋−𝟏 − 𝟐𝒖𝒊,𝒋 + 𝒖𝒊,𝒋+𝟏
𝒖𝒚𝒚 =
𝒉𝟐

∴ 𝒖𝒙𝒙 + 𝒖𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎
𝑢𝑖−1,𝑗 − 2𝑢𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖+1,𝑗 𝑢𝑖,𝑗−1 − 2𝑢𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖,𝑗+1
+ =0
ℎ2 ℎ2
1
(𝑢 − 2𝑢𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖+1,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖,𝑗−1 − 2𝑢𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖,𝑗+1 ) = 0
ℎ2 𝑖−1,𝑗
𝑢𝑖−1,𝑗 − 4𝑢𝑖,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖+1,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖,𝑗−1 + 𝑢𝑖,𝑗+1 = 0
𝑢𝑖−1,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖+1,𝑗 + 𝑢𝑖,𝑗−1 + 𝑢𝑖,𝑗+1 = 4𝑢𝑖,𝑗
𝒖𝒊−𝟏,𝒋 + 𝒖𝒊+𝟏,𝒋 + 𝒖𝒊,𝒋−𝟏 + 𝒖𝒊,𝒋+𝟏
∴ 𝒖𝒊,𝒋 =
𝟒
This is the standard form
For Diagonal form,
𝒖𝒊−𝟏,𝒋+𝟏 + 𝒖𝒊+𝟏,𝒋+𝟏 + 𝒖𝒊−𝟏,𝒋−𝟏 + 𝒖𝒊+𝟏,𝒋−𝟏
∴ 𝒖𝒊,𝒋 =
𝟒

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 Md. Anawar Ibrahim (Ananta)
Reg: 3098; EEE-03

Here, the values of 𝒄 = 𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧 and values of 𝒖 = 𝐮𝐧𝐤𝐧𝐨𝐰𝐧

Here, we need to find the values of 𝒖𝟏 , 𝒖𝟐 , 𝒖𝟑 , 𝒖𝟒 , 𝒖𝟓 , 𝒖𝟔 , 𝒖𝟕 , 𝒖𝟖 , 𝒖𝟗
𝒄𝟏𝟏 + 𝒄𝟏𝟓 + 𝒄𝟕 + 𝒄𝟑
𝒖𝟓 =
𝟒
𝒄𝟏𝟑 + 𝒄𝟏𝟏 + 𝒄𝟏𝟓 + 𝒖𝟓
𝒖𝟕 =
𝟒
𝒄𝟏𝟏 + 𝒄𝟗 + 𝒖𝟓 + 𝒄𝟕
𝒖𝟗 =
𝟒
𝒄𝟏𝟏 + 𝒖𝟕 + 𝒖𝟗 + 𝒖𝟓
𝒖𝟖 =
𝟒
𝒄𝟏𝟓 + 𝒖𝟓 + 𝒄𝟏 + 𝒄𝟑
𝒖𝟏 =
𝟒
𝒖𝟕 + 𝒄𝟏𝟓 + 𝒖𝟓 + 𝒖𝟏
𝒖𝟒 =
𝟒
𝒖𝟒 + 𝒖𝟔 + 𝒄𝟐 + 𝒄𝟒
𝒖𝟐 =
𝟒
𝒖𝟓 + 𝒄𝟕 + 𝒄𝟑 + 𝒄𝟓
𝒖𝟑 =
𝟒
𝒖𝟗 + 𝒖𝟓 + 𝒄𝟕 + 𝒖𝟑
𝒖𝟔 =
𝟒

57