THE SUPREME COUNCIL OF UNIVERSITIES

COURSE GUIDE:
SOCIETAL ISSUES
Introduction:

Universities specialise in building individuals to achieve societal goals, as outlined in

Article (1) of the Universities Organisation Law, which states that universities
specialise in everything related to higher education and scientific research conducted
by their faculties and institutes to serve the community and elevate it culturally.
Thus, universities are considered strongholds of human thought at its highest levels
and a source for investing in and developing society's most important and valuable
wealth: human capital.

Additionally, society requires universities to supply specialists, technicians, and

experts in various fields, prepare individuals equipped with the fundamentals of
knowledge and advanced research methods, and imbue them with noble values.

Furthermore, universities are concerned with promoting Arab civilisation, the

historical heritage of the Egyptian people, and their authentic traditions, and
ensuring a high standard of religious, moral, and national education.

From this perspective, curricula taught at universities play an active role in meeting
the needs of society. Education experts agree that curricula should be built on
philosophical, cognitive, social, and psychological foundations, aiming to transfer
human thought and cultural heritage from one generation to the next to preserve
human civilisation and enhance the quality of life.
To this end, university curricula aim to build individuals based on three aspects:

1. Cognitive Aspect: This includes teaching students various types of knowledge,

information, and scientific facts, training them in multiple levels of
information handling skills such as memorisation, recall, understanding,
analysis, synthesis, evaluation, judgment, transferring training effects to
similar situations, and compensating for informational deficiencies, among
others.
2. Emotional Aspect: This involves refining emotions, elevating feelings,
regulating emotions, and training students to build self-esteem, reduce anxiety
levels, increase motivation for achievement, form positive attitudes, enhance
feelings of empathy, and uphold scientific ethics. It also aims to strengthen
concepts of loyalty and belonging, thus developing students' value systems.
3. Motor Skills Aspect: This relates to practical training and physical practices
based on kinesthetic learning. It includes various practical exercises and
tangible training levels, from the simplest to the most complex, aimed at
proficiency. For example, it may start with counting money in a bank for
commerce students or, more complexly, showing how to use surgical scalpels in
surgery, and so on.

Considering all the above, the Supreme Council of Universities has approved the
implementation of a course entitled "Societal Issues" as a university requirement, with
the following objectives:

Course Objectives:

1. Raise the awareness of university students about a range of pressing societal

issues.
2. Foster positive behavioural habits.
3. Enhance the concept of community participation among youth.
4. Educate youth about the dangers surrounding the local, regional, and global
community.
5. Link the academic aspects studied by students to societal requirements and
needs.
6. Develop emotional aspects among students.
7. Enhance the scientific content of university requirement courses.
8. Train students in self-directed learning that fosters lifelong learning abilities.
9. Support the construction of a value system among students.

Course Content: This course consists of two parts.

Part One: An obligatory part with four chapters as follows:

Chapter 1: Problems Arising from Population Growth and Its Impact on

Reproductive Health

Chapter 2: Human Rights

Chapter 3: Transparency and Combating Corruption

Chapter 4: Religious Tolerance and Observing the Manners of Dialogue

with the Other.

Part Two: An optional part with two chapters as follows:

Chapter 5: Digital Media Literacy

Chapter 6: Environmental Issues

The chapters range from ten to fifty pages, depending on each chapter's scientific
content. Each chapter considers the following:

1. Presenting the basic and main concepts directly.

2. Providing illustrative examples.
3. Considering that the student will learn independently without a teacher, given
the impossibility of six professors teaching the university requirement course.
4. Sequencing the content logically and specifying the instructions for the
student.
5. Each chapter includes a set of statements, and after reading the chapter, the
student must determine the accuracy of each statement.
6. An answer key follows the questions since the goal is not memorisation and
recall but rather raising awareness and forming positive behavioural habits
reflected in life practices.
7. The content is provided electronically through the university's official website
on the information network and as an application on smartphones and can be
downloaded from there.
8. The course is designed electronically to let the student know the grade he/she
gets each time he/she answers the questions.

Teaching Method:

This course is based on self-learning for the following reasons:

1. Encouraging university students to learn independently.

2. Overcoming the difficulty of the diversity of topics and the impossibility of
involving six specialists in teaching the course.
3. Students are at an age that allows them to be self-reliant in learning.
4. Training students in more than one way of learning.
5. Preparing students for lifelong learning.

What is required of each student:

1. Read the chapter carefully and thoughtfully.

 2. Answer the chapter questions completely. Read each question carefully and
then determine the correctness or incorrectness of what is stated in the
sentence.
3. The student must verify the correctness of his/her answer considering the
answer key.
4. The student must follow his/her grade, which is electronically returned,
considering the number of correct answers.
5. The student must repeat answering the questions from time to time until
he/she gets the final grade three times in a row.
6. The student repeats this after each chapter.

Accompanying Activities:

Each chapter includes a theoretical part, as described above, as well as activities that
are considered practical training considering the following rules:

1. The practical field activity serves the requirements and urgent needs of the
community.
2. The student must choose the activity he/she will perform from among several
alternatives the college administration offers.
3. The student's specialisation field is considered when choosing the practical
activity.
4. Each college presents the activities from which the student will choose and
draws up the necessary controls and rules for their implementation and
evaluation. This should only be known to the college and through its approved
plan.
5. These activities can be a set of field visits to national projects, training in a
specific skill through courses, attending a package of seminars, teaching
illiterates to read and write, participating in medical convoys, contributing to
the supervision of construction projects, civilisational coordination, decorating
squares or the university itself, solving equipment maintenance problems,
organising traffic, participating in surveys conducted by state statistical
institutions, contributing to traffic organisation, participating in surveying tasks
or participating in electronic archiving, or similar activities.
6. The student must choose from the activities announced by his/her college and
not any other college.
7. Similar activities carried out by the student individually without an assignment
from his/her college are not recognised.
8. This must be done under the full supervision of the college.

Assessment:

For the evaluation of the theoretical part:

• The total number of questions after each chapter should be from the average
of 300 questions following the chapters annually after each chapter. In other
 words, the test creator must ensure that the test vocabulary is selected from
the average of 300 questions following the chapters after each chapter.
• Students who answer the test questions must determine the accuracy of each
statement in the test.
• 50% of the student assessment grades in the course are for the theoretical test.

For the evaluation of the practical part:

• The total grades for evaluating practical fieldwork represent 50% of the total
student assessment grades in the course.
• Colleges establish committees to supervise students' performance during
practical field training and evaluate their performance throughout the training
period.

Assessment: For the evaluation of the theoretical part:

• The total number of questions after each chapter should be from the average
of 300 questions following the chapters annually after each chapter. In other
words, the test creator must ensure that the test vocabulary is selected from
the average of 300 questions following the chapters after each chapter.
• Students who answer the test questions must determine the accuracy of each
statement in the test.
• 50% of the student assessment grades in the course are allocated to the
theoretical test.

For the evaluation of the practical part:

• The total grades allocated for evaluating practical fieldwork represent 50% of
the total student assessment grades in the course.
• Colleges establish committees to supervise students' performance during
practical field training and evaluate their performance throughout the training
period.

General Rules:

• The course considers modern trends in human development in various issues

discussed.
• It must include the educational and enlightening requirements of society.
• Deletion or addition of chapters is allowed considering emerging societal
requirements.

• The scientific content consists of two parts: the first consists of four obligatory
chapters approved by the Supreme Council of Universities: (1) Problems Arising
from Population Growth and Its Impact on Reproductive Health, (2) Human
Rights, and (3) Transparency and Combating Corruption, and (4) Religious
Tolerance and Observing the Manners of Dialogue with the Other. The
 second part is optional and consists of two chapters: (5) Digital Media Literacy
and (6) Environmental Issues.
• The Supreme Council of Universities may replace one of these issues with a
more pressing issue according to societal requirements if this is done with
sufficient time before the start of the academic year.

• Each university is allowed to approve the course description annually before

the start of the academic year, including four issues approved by the Supreme
Council of Universities. The university chooses two additional issues to
complete the six chapters, from among other societal topics such as digital
media literacy, promoting belonging, dangers of literacy, entrepreneurship,
leadership preparation, and other urgent issues according to the vision of the
university council.
• Each chapter should be within the range of ten to fifty pages. The total number
of chapters should not exceed six to achieve the goal, considering students'
attention spans towards critical issues related to building a value system.
• It should be noted that the main goal of the course is to build an individual's
character and form positive habits rather than memorising a set of concepts.
• The course should include a practical fieldwork component in addition to the
six theoretical chapters, where students participate in community services such
as participating in literacy campaigns, medical or agricultural convoys,
attending a series of seminars on national security, visiting sites and projects,
or other practical assignments organised by the university and subject to the
same rules as practical field training.
• It is preferable for the student to choose one of the previous practical
fieldwork activities from among the alternatives according to their scientific
specialisation.
• The theoretical part of this course is subject to electronic evaluation, with half
of the total grade allocated to theoretical evaluation and the other half to
practical field training.
• Faculty councils determine the academic year in which the course on societal
issues will be taught.
• Colleges establish committees to supervise the practical fieldwork component,
and student performance in this component is supervised by the Dean of the
college.
• A reward is provided to committees supervising students' performance in
practical fieldwork in accordance with the specified rules for rewards under
the Universities Organisation Law.
Part One
Obligatory Chapters
Chapter 1: Problems Arising from Population Growth and Its Impact on
Reproductive Health

Chapter 2: Human Rights

Chapter 3: Transparency and Combating Corruption

Chapter 4: Religious Tolerance and Observing the Manners of Dialogue

with the Other.

Chapter 1
Problems Arising from Population Growth
and Its Impact on Reproductive Health
Rapid population growth in many developing countries since the mid-20th century is viewed as
an exceptional demographic phenomenon. Advances in medicine, including vaccines,
antibiotics, and improved disease control, initially achieved in developed nations, were rapidly
transferred to developing regions through global transportation and communication. This led to
a sharp decline in mortality rates without a parallel drop in fertility, unlike the demographic
transition experienced earlier in industrialised countries. The resulting high population growth
has placed significant pressure on scarce economic resources, constraining social and economic
development and giving rise to the so-called “population problem.

Population problems emerge when economic and social development cannot match the pace
of population growth, resulting in rising poverty levels. These issues are deeply intertwined
with existing social, economic, and cultural conditions, and they directly hinder national efforts
toward sustainable development.

Egypt is among the countries most affected by population challenges, which continue to pose a
major obstacle to development and nation-building efforts. Consequently, the issue remains a
central priority for the state’s political leadership and executive authorities. Globally, Egypt
ranks sixteenth in population size, while regionally it is the third most populous African nation
after Nigeria and Ethiopia, and the largest in the Arab world, with a population of around one
hundred million. This growth is shaped by the interplay of births, deaths, and external
migration.

1- Births:

Since 1940, Egypt’s birth rate has remained relatively high, exceeding 40 per thousand until
1966, before declining to about 35 per thousand in the early 1970s. It then rose again to nearly
41 per thousand in 1985, followed by a steady fall to 25.8 per thousand in 2006. After
increasing slightly to 26.8 per thousand in 2017, the rate declined once more, reaching 23.4 per
thousand in 2019, when total births numbered around 2.3 million (CAPMAS).

High birth rates, and consequently rapid population growth, are driven by several factors, most
notably: the economic and social value of children, early marriage, high infant mortality, limited
female education and participation in the workforce, prevailing customs that encourage large
families, preference for male offspring, misconceptions regarding religion, and the spread of
conservative cultural attitudes

Children are perceived as economically and socially valuable, particularly in rural and low-
income communities, where the cost of raising them is relatively low.

b. Early marriage extends women’s reproductive years and reduces their chances of continuing
education.

c. High infant mortality encourages families to have more children to ensure survival.

d. Limited female education and cultural restrictions confine women largely to domestic roles,
making childbearing their main social function.

e. Traditions promote early childbirth and large families as safeguards against divorce or
polygamy.

f. A strong cultural preference for male offspring leads families to continue having children until
sons are born.
g. Misinterpretations of religion foster suspicion toward family planning and resistance to birth
control.

h. Conservative cultural influences, reinforced by return migration from Gulf countries, intensify
opposition to population control, often viewed as a foreign attempt to reduce the Muslim
population.

2 - Deaths:

Improvements in healthcare, medicines, vaccines, clean water, sanitation, and related services
have significantly reduced mortality in Egypt. The death rate fell from 26 per thousand in 1940
to 17 in the early 1960s, 10 in the early 1980s, 6.4 in 2005, and 5.7 in 2019. Infant mortality also
declined, reaching 15.4 in 2019, contributing to rising life expectancy, which increased from
60.5 years (males) and 63.5 years (females) in 1986 to 73 and 75 years respectively in 2020.

Despite Egypt’s land area exceeding one million km², only about 7.8% is inhabited, primarily
along the Nile Valley, Delta, and select oases. This concentration creates severe population
density pressures: the national average reached 98.4 people/km² in 2019 but exceeded
1,448/km² in inhabited areas. Density is particularly acute in Cairo (over 50,000/km² in some
districts), which alone accounts for 10.5% of the total population. Greater Cairo (Cairo, Giza,
Qalyubia) hosts roughly one-quarter of Egypt’s population, whereas sparsely populated areas,
such as South Sinai, represent only 2.2%.

1-3 The Third Dimension: Low Population Characteristics:

Egypt still suffers from a decline in population characteristics, manifested in several

aspects, including:

1. Imbalance in the age structure of the population and a high percentage of

children:

The rapid rise in Egypt’s fertility and population growth until the mid-1980s expanded the base
of the population pyramid, with individuals under 15 years comprising 40% of the population in
1986. This share declined to 37.7% in 1996 and 34.7% in 2017. The large proportion of children
has strained resources, as this age group is dependent and requires food, healthcare, and
education before entering the workforce. Such resource demands divert funds that could
otherwise support economic development, job creation, and improved living standards, as
demonstrated in rapidly developing Asian nations.

Concurrently, Egypt is experiencing demographic aging, with a rising proportion of those over
60 years old. These shifts have created an imbalance in age structure, reflected in the high
dependency ratio: in 2017, each 100 working-age individuals (15–64 years) supported 61.6
dependents, a significant economic burden.

Educational challenges further exacerbate the problem. High population growth has
overwhelmed the education system, contributing to school dropouts and persistent illiteracy. In
2017, illiteracy affected 25.8% of the population, disproportionately higher among females
(30.8%) compared to males (21.2%).

3. Low female labour force participation:

Labour force surveys by CAPMAS show that female labour force participation in the 12–64 age
group was only 18.3% in 2018, highlighting the need for greater investment in women’s
education, the creation of suitable job opportunities, and the promotion of women’s
empowerment across social, economic, and political domains. Enhancing women’s participation
in the labour market can also shift societal perceptions of women’s roles beyond childbearing,
while helping to reduce early marriage, early childbearing, and inadequate spacing between
pregnancies.

4. Increased unemployment rate:

Population census data reveal a rise in unemployment in recent years, reflecting one of the key
repercussions of rapid population growth. In 2018, the unemployment rate reached 9.9%, due
to the economy’s limited capacity to generate sufficient jobs for new entrants into the labour
market. Unemployment is heavily concentrated among youth, with approximately 90% of the
unemployed under 30 years old, and is particularly prevalent among individuals with
intermediate qualifications, especially women.
Exposure of a percentage of children to poor nutritional status:

Poor child nutrition is a major consequence of Egypt’s widening food gap, driven by rising
consumption and increasing food prices linked to population growth. The 2008 Egypt
Demographic and Health Survey (EDHS) reported that 18% of children under five suffered from
stunted growth and 6% from severe stunting, reflecting long-term inadequate nutrition or
chronic illness. Rural children were found to be more vulnerable to growth retardation than
their urban counterparts.

6. The suffering of a percentage of the population from poverty:

Poverty rates in Egypt have risen significantly, reaching 25% in 2011 following the political and
economic challenges of the 25 January and 30 June revolutions, and 29.7% by the 2019 Income
and Expenditure Survey. Poverty is more prevalent in rural than urban areas, with the highest
rates in Upper Egypt and in informal settlements. The data highlights a strong link between
poverty levels and population growth at both family and community levels.

Figure 3

Percentage of households living below the poverty line

7. The growing phenomenon of slum housing

Egypt faces a growing increase in slums, driven by rural-to-urban migration, limited agricultural
land, and the state’s inability to provide adequate housing. Estimates vary, with the Ministry of
Local Development reporting 916 slums and the IDSC around 1,034, accommodating over 16
million people. Residents of these areas endure poor living conditions, lacking basic services,
while also suffering from poverty and unemployment.

2) The implications of population growth:

The demographic characteristics and challenges represent clear outcomes of the population
growth Egypt has experienced in recent decades. Rising poverty, illiteracy, and unemployment
rates, together with the expansion of slum housing and other related issues, highlight a
deterioration in both economic and social conditions. These developments can therefore be
regarded as significant implications of population growth including:

Declining per capita water share: Despite Egypt’s fixed water quota of 55.5 billion cubic meters
annually, continued population growth has reduced the per capita share of water to only five
hundred cubic meters. According to international standards, when the per capita share falls
below 1,000 cubic meters, a country is considered water-poor. This alarming situation poses
serious challenges, as water is the foundation for agricultural production, combating hunger,
and achieving food security. Notably, food security and water security are intrinsically linked,
representing two sides of the same coin.

Declining per capita share of agricultural land: With the continuous population increase and
the limited availability of cultivable land, Egypt’s per capita share of agricultural land has fallen
to only 0.1 feddan. The constraints of both land and water resources directly restrict food
security, contributing to an estimated 60% food gap in total production. Closing this gap would
require the cultivation of an additional six million feddans and the provision of 6 billion cubic
meters of water—an unlikely prospect given the pressures of sustained population growth and
its associated implications.

Increased reliance on food imports: Water scarcity and the widening food gap, compounded by
continuous population growth, have significantly increased Egypt’s dependence on external
markets to meet domestic demand. Currently, the country imports nearly 80% of its food
requirements, making it highly vulnerable to fluctuations in international prices and global
supply chain disruptions.

[Link] reliance on food imports: Water scarcity and the widening food gap, compounded
by continuous population growth, have significantly increased Egypt’s dependence on external
markets to meet domestic demand. Currently, the country imports 80% of its food
requirements, making it highly vulnerable to fluctuations in international prices and global
supply chain disruptions.
[Link] crime rates and aggravation of traffic problems: Population growth has
contributed to the intensification of social and economic pressures, leading to a noticeable rise
in crime. Society is now facing new and more violent forms of criminal activity, in addition to
emerging crimes linked to the misuse of information technology. Furthermore, the spread of
phenomena such as street children and thuggery are direct repercussions of rapid population
growth, threatening social peace and security. Alongside this, traffic congestion has worsened
because of the rising number of inhabitants, further straining infrastructure, and daily life in
urban centres.

[Link] dependence on external energy sources: Population growth widens the energy
gap, forcing greater reliance on imports and diverting resources that could enhance living
standards.

[Link] pollution: Population growth intensifies pollution as human activities expand,

threatening environmental balance and sustainability.

Rising pressure on resources: Continuous population growth strains environmental and non-
renewable resources (e.g., oil) and increases food consumption beyond production capacity,
risking famines.

Need for awareness: Addressing population growth requires greater societal understanding of
its short- and long-term implications on resources and sustainability.

[Link] policies: Since 1965, successive governments have attempted to address

population growth, with frequent shifts in strategies, the latest being the National Population
Strategy (2015–2030). However, most goals remain unmet due to weak inter-ministerial
coordination.

Egypt's Future Population Projections: Egypt’s population is projected to exceed 140 million by
2050.

Future Challenges of Population Growth: Despite some progress, Egypt faces inevitable future
challenges that require urgent solutions, the most important of which are:
6) What's next?

Future Directions for Population and Development Policies

The expected population growth and related challenges require a comprehensive evaluation of
past policies and strategies to establish a realistic future vision.

Axis I: Population Policies and Strategies

Focus on assessing current population policies, enhancing their effectiveness, and clearly
defining the responsibilities of all relevant institutions.

Axis II: Developmental Policies and Human Resources

Emphasize strategies to maximize the use of human resources through education, training, and
job creation, ensuring economic growth outpaces population growth.

Complementarity of Both Axes

Population and development strategies must be implemented together, as each directly

influences the other.

The Demographic Dividend Opportunity

If policies are effectively applied, Egypt could benefit from the demographic dividend, where
reduced fertility lowers dependency rates, freeing resources for investment in education,
employment, and economic growth, like East Asia and Latin America.

Regional and National Prospects

The UN projects that some Arab countries may benefit from this dividend within two decades.
Studies suggest Egypt could achieve it by the 2030s if fertility rates decline and policies prove
effective.

Constitutional Obligation
It is crucial to activate Article (41) of the 2014 Constitution to ensure the serious
implementation of population and development strategies.

Scientific Sources

1. Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS). Most Important Final
Results of the General Population and Housing Census and Establishments. 2017.

2. Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS). Egypt in Figures. Cairo,
2020.

3. Makhlouf, Hesham. Population, Environment, and Human Rights: Challenges of

Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals 2030. Egyptian Association of
Demographers, Cairo, 2018.

4. Makhlouf, Hesham. Security Demography (Concepts and Methods). Police Academy,

Cairo, 2012.

5. Ministry of Health and Population. Demographic Health Survey, 2014. Cairo, 2015.

National Population Council – Reproductive Health and Family Planning

Reproductive Health and Family Planning Programs

• Essential for addressing population growth and supporting development efforts.

• Reduce maternal and child mortality rates.

• Aim to improve quality of life, combat poverty, and enhance living standards.

• Cover family, social, health, and cultural dimensions.

• Provide vaccinations, primary healthcare, premarital and postnatal check-ups, and

interventions to improve population characteristics.

What is Reproductive Health?

 • Defined as the ability to enjoy a safe sexual life, to reproduce, and to choose freely
when and how to do so.

• Includes awareness of safe, effective, and acceptable family planning methods.

• Emphasizes safe pregnancy and childbirth for healthier children.

• Encompasses health habits, physical and mental well-being, sexual activity, prenatal and
adolescent health, and women’s post-childbearing stage.

• Considered a lifelong approach, influencing health from childhood to old age.

• Requires involvement of both men and women in reproductive decisions.

• Broader than family planning; it is everyone’s responsibility at all stages of life.

International Definition

• The International Conference on Population and Development defines reproductive

health as physical, mental, and social well-being in all matters related to the
reproductive system, not merely the absence of disease.

Target Groups of Reproductive Health Services

• Men and women of childbearing age.

• Adolescents and youth (to avoid harmful behaviors).

• Women post-childbearing age (to prevent reproductive diseases).

• Post-natal children (to protect and promote health).

Reproductive Health Services

• Guarantee the right to know and use safe and acceptable family planning methods.

• Provide high-quality family planning and infertility treatment.

• Ensure safe pregnancy and childbirth.

 • Increase opportunities for healthy children.

• Prevent unsafe abortions.

• Combat sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).

• Promote sexual health.

Reproductive Health Key Messages

1. Pre-marital Care

• Provides health education and medical/psychological/social support for couples before

marriage.

• Identifies risks, discusses family planning methods, and raises awareness on safe
pregnancy and childbirth.

• Includes medical history review and necessary examinations.

2. Delaying the First Child

• Strengthens marital stability and allows couples to adapt to new responsibilities.

• Supports better adjustment to family and work-life balance.

3. Role of Men in Family Planning

• Adopt the small family concept.

• Share decisions on pregnancy and childbirth.

• Encourage family planning, use condoms, and follow up on maternal health.

• Help shift attitudes and behaviors towards responsible reproduction.

4. Pregnancy Spacing

• Protects maternal and child health and reduces abortion/unintended pregnancies.

 • Improves children’s nutrition, growth, and school performance.

• Gives mothers time to recover and strengthens marital relationships.

5. Preventing Child Marriage

• Defined as marriage under 18 years, often forced, with serious social and health
consequences.

• Leads to early divorce, domestic violence, poverty, and reduced education.

• Causes health risks such as anemia, complications, infections, and higher postpartum
depression among young mothers.

6. Importance of Female Education

• Empowers women in family decision-making and improves child upbringing.

• Educated mothers positively influence children, family, and community.

• Supports social development and reduces negative parenting practices.

7. Limiting Consanguineous Marriages

• Consanguineous unions increase risks of congenital and genetic disorders.

• Studies in Egypt show 2–3% of newborns with defects; higher rates in close-kin
marriages.

• Genetic diseases contribute significantly to infant and child mortality.

Family Planning

A conscious and organized effort by couples to regulate fertility (delay, space, or limit births)
through information and services, aiming to reduce fertility and improve public health.

Importance of Family Planning

• Decide number/spacing of children.

• Prevent unintended pregnancy.

• Improve women’s chances for education/work.

• Save mothers’ lives by reducing births, spacing pregnancies, and avoiding very early/late
pregnancies.
Unmet Family Planning Needs

Over 100 million women in developing countries want to avoid pregnancy but don’t use
contraceptives due to:

• Poor healthcare services.

• Side effect concerns.

• Lack of information.

• Difficulty accessing services.

• Opposition from spouses/families.

Family Planning as a Determinant of Population Growth

Family planning explains 64% of fertility rate variation in Egypt, compared to other factors
(breastfeeding 14%, abortion 12%, marriage age 10%). It prevents millions of unintended
pregnancies and unsafe abortions annually.

Main Goal of Family Planning

Not only limiting births but arranging and coordinating reproductive life to ensure resources
(social, financial, environmental) are available for childbearing.

Family Planning and Maternal Health

• WHO defines maternal health as safety during pregnancy, birth, postpartum.

• Early pregnancy raises risks; waiting until 18 and spacing 2 years reduces complications.

• Advanced maternal age increases risks (Down syndrome, diabetes, cesarean).

• Spacing reduces infant/maternal deaths, stunting, anemia, and psychological strain.

Family Planning and Financial Resources

• Family planning is cost-effective and an economic investment.

• Saves on education, health, food, housing costs.

• Every $1 on contraception saves $1.47 in pregnancy care.

• Ranked among top global initiatives for social and economic benefit.

• This prevents hundreds of thousands of maternal and neonatal deaths worldwide.

•
Family Planning and Human Rights

• Family planning is recognized as a human right (ICPD 1994, Cairo).

• Couples have the right to decide number and spacing of children and access related
information and means.

• In Egypt, the first National Strategy for Human Rights focuses on enhancing social,
economic, political, and cultural rights, including family planning.

Family Planning Options

• Barrier methods: Condoms, diaphragms, cervical caps, sponges.

• Short-acting hormonal: Pills, vaginal ring, skin patch, injections.

• Long-acting hormonal: Copper IUD, hormonal IUD, implants.

• Sterilization: Tubal ligation, vasectomy.

• Fertility awareness: Tracking cycle, temperature, cervical mucus.

• Emergency contraception: Morning-after pill.

How Birth Control Methods Work

• Prevent sperm from reaching egg.

• Destroy/inactivate sperm.

• Prevent egg release.

• Change uterine lining to block implantation.

• Thicken cervical mucus to block sperm.

Effectiveness of Methods

• Consistency and correct use are key.

• High protection: IUDs, implants, sterilization.

• Lower protection: Fertility awareness, periodic abstinence.

Other Benefits

• Reduce menstrual bleeding.

 • Lower risk of STIs (barrier methods).

• Reduce risk of certain cancers.

Choosing the Best Method

• Depends on woman’s age, health, history, desired children, side effects, cost, and STI
protection.

• Best method is choosing a doctor and may change over time.

References

• Egyptian Centre for Economic Studies (2020).

• Halima Gharzouli (2013).

Suggested Student Research

• World population ranking (2022, 2050, Egypt’s position).

• Demographic dividend in Egypt.

• History of Population Census in Egypt.

• Family Planning and National Security.

• Population and climate.

 Chapter 2
Human Rights

Introduction and Division

God created and honored humans above all creatures. A dignified life is impossible without
rights that protect humanity and fulfil needs. This chapter has two sections:

1. Nature and sources of human rights.

2. Types of human rights.

Section One: The Nature of Human Rights and Their Sources

Definition of Human Rights

• Universal legal guarantees that protect everyone equally, regardless of gender, religion,
language, or origin.

• Aim: to ensure dignity, security, and freedom in civil, political, economic, social, and
cultural life.

• Protected by international declarations, treaties, and national laws; only restricted in

limited legal cases.

Characteristics of Human Rights

1. Universality: Apply equally to all people everywhere. States must respect them under
international law.

2. Indivisibility and Interrelation: All rights—civil, political, economic, social, cultural, and
collective—are linked and must be equally protected.
 3. Non-negotiable: Inherent and cannot be waived, sold, or denied, except in specific legal
cases.

Sources of Human Rights

• International declarations and treaties.

• National legislation protecting rights.

These sources include:

International Sources of Human Rights

1. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)

• A key international instrument with 30 articles guaranteeing rights and freedoms for all
people without discrimination.

• Considered the foundation of modern human rights law.

2. Seven Core International Human Rights Conventions

A. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

• Protects freedom of movement, equality before the law, fair trial, freedom of thought
and expression, and minority rights.

• Prohibits arbitrary killing, torture, arbitrary detention, forced labor, discrimination, and
hate speech.

B. International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)

• Ensures rights such as property, fair work conditions, social security, health, and
education.

C. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD)

• Condemn and requires action against racial discrimination based on race, color, descent,
or national/ethnic origin.

• Promotes racial equality and understanding among all groups.

D. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)

• Focuses on women’s rights and equality in education, employment, politics, law, and
society.

• Defines gender-based discrimination as any exclusion or restriction that undermines

women’s rights.

• Ensures women’s full participation in all areas of life.

E. Convention Against Torture (CAT)

• Prohibits torture and cruelty, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment.

• Defines torture as intentional severe physical or mental pain caused for purposes like
punishment, intimidation, or coercion, especially by officials.

F. Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)

• Recognizes children’s vulnerability and guarantees rights such as name, nationality,

parental care, and protection.

• Calls for protection of children against exploitation, violence, armed conflict, famine,
and neglect.

• Promotes a safe family environment for full development.

The Seventh Convention: International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All
Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families
This convention addresses humanitarian issues related to migration, particularly irregular
migration. It encourages appropriate measures to prevent secret movements and trafficking of
migrant workers and aims to eliminate them. At the same time, it protects their rights from
some employers who may be tempted to seek this type of labor to benefit from unfair
competition.

(2) National Sources of Human Rights

States must ensure the compatibility of their national legislation with international and regional
human rights systems to play a crucial role in promoting and protecting human rights. National
legislation includes the following:

A - Basic Legislation (Constitution) "La constitution"

The constitution is a set of legal rules that regulate the state's form and its governance system,
outlining the fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals. It is the supreme legislation of the
state, and all laws issued in the country must not violate its provisions; otherwise, they may be
deemed unconstitutional. The Egyptian constitution emphasizes respect for human rights and
freedoms and addresses rights and freedoms in its third chapter.

B - Ordinary Legislation (Law) "La loi"

Ordinary legislation refers to the set of legal rules issued by the country's legislative authority
according to the constitution's provisions. It includes all written laws applicable in the country,
excluding the constitution, such as civil, commercial, and criminal law, encompassing texts that
protect human rights in various forms.
Subsidiary Legislation (Regulations) "Le réglement"
Subsidiary legislation (regulations) refers to the set of general abstract rules issued by the
executive authority. It is secondary legislation issued by the executive authority within the
scope of its jurisdiction as stipulated in the constitution.

Second Section

Types of Human Rights

Human rights are diverse and evolve with changing circumstances and the development of
societies. Based on their subject matter, they are classified into civil and political rights, and
economic, social, and cultural rights.

First: Civil and Political Rights

Civil rights confirm an individual's humanity and preserve human and moral qualities. They are
inherent from birth and persist until death. Political rights (Droits politiques) are granted to
individuals as citizens of a state, enabling them to participate in managing political society.
Examples include the right to vote, run for office, hold public office, and join political parties.

Civil and political rights are considered non-financial rights because they are tied to moral
values and cannot be traded.

Main civil and political rights include:

1. The Right to Life

Every individual has the natural right to life. It must be respected and safeguarded, with
deprivation only allowed under strict legal conditions, such as capital punishment for
the most serious crimes, by a final court ruling.

2. The Right to Physical Integrity and Human Dignity

Individuals must not be subjected to torture, cruel, or degrading treatment. Human
dignity requires respect for the body, protection against cloning, genetic threats, or
medical experiments without informed consent.

3. The Right to Equality and Non-Discrimination

All individuals are equal in dignity and rights, without discrimination based on race, sex,
age, religion, disability, or origin. The state ensures equality between men and women
in all rights.

4. The Right to Freedom of Movement

Individuals may move, reside, migrate, leave, and return freely. Restrictions may only be
imposed on public interest or national security through judicial orders.

5. The Right to Inviolability of the Home and Correspondence

Private life, homes, and communications are protected. Entry or surveillance is only
allowed with judicial authorization under the law.
 6. The Right to Belief and Worship
Freedom of Belief is absolute. Individuals may practice religion privately or publicly,
provided it does not violate public order or morality. Restrictions must be lawful and
necessary, while parents retain the right to guide their children’s religious and moral
upbringing.

7. The Right to Freedom of Expression

Individuals may express opinions and share information by any means. This right is not
absolute; it is limited by the need to respect public order, morality, and the rights of
others, under judicial oversight.

8. The Right to Form and Join Associations and Political Parties

Individuals may establish unions, associations, and political parties to protect their
interests. Restrictions may be applied by law for national security, public order, or
morality.

Second: Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights

These rights require positive intervention from the state and are considered obligations of the
state. The most important of these rights include:

1. The Right to Ownership

Everyone has the right to own ownership to own individually or jointly. Arbitrary
deprivation of property is not allowed, and ownership must be protected. Within the
law’s limits, owners may use, exploit, and dispose of their property. Private ownership
and inheritance are guaranteed, though restrictions may be imposed by law.
Expropriation is allowed only for public benefit and with proper legal procedures.

2. The Right to Work

Every individual has the right to freely choose their work, receive fair wages that ensure
a decent life, and enjoy protection from unemployment. They are entitled to form and
join unions, benefit from reasonable working hours and holidays, and work in safe
environments.
The Egyptian constitution affirms that work is a right, duty, and honor guaranteed by
the state. Forced labor is prohibited except as regulated by law, for a limited period, and
with fair compensation. The state is responsible for protecting workers’ rights, ensuring
balanced employer–employee relations, preventing arbitrary dismissal, and
safeguarding occupational safety and health.

3. The Right to Social Security and Insurance

The state guarantees social insurance and protection for citizens unable to support
themselves or their families, especially in cases of disability, old age, or unemployment.
Insurance funds and pensions are considered private, protected like public funds, and
managed securely by an independent body under the law.

4. The Right to Health

Every citizen has the right to comprehensive healthcare according to quality standards.
 The state is committed to maintaining and developing health facilities, ensuring fair
distribution, and protecting individuals from health risks and diseases. This includes
reproductive health services, reducing maternal and infant mortality, controlling
epidemics, and providing necessary medical services and care during illness.

5. The Right to Education

Education is a fundamental human right and essential for building generations. The
state must provide education, establish institutions, promote scientific research, and
protect intellectual property rights. Education should build personality, preserve
identity, encourage innovation, and instill values of citizenship, tolerance, and equality.
Education is compulsory until the end of secondary school (or its equivalent) and free in
state institutions. Children with special needs must also be integrated into the general
education system.
 Chapter 3:
Transparency and Combating Corruption
Introduction and Division:

Corruption is a global phenomenon that continues to expand and branch out, posing a serious
threat to the stability and security of societies. Despite the development of legislation,
detecting, combating, and controlling corruption remains a major challenge without the
establishment of a comprehensive legal framework. The fight against corruption faces
unprecedented difficulties, with new forms constantly emerging. Legislators must adapt to
these developments and avoid relying on traditional or ineffective methods in combating
corruption.

This chapter is divided into three sections: the first addresses the nature of transparency and
corruption, the second examines the types of corruption, and the third explores anti-
corruption measures.

Corruption is a global phenomenon that continues to expand and branch out, posing a serious
threat to the stability and security of societies. Despite the development of legislation,
detecting, combating, and controlling corruption remains a major challenge without the
establishment of a comprehensive legal framework. The fight against corruption faces
unprecedented difficulties, with new forms constantly emerging. Legislators must adapt to
these developments and avoid relying on traditional or ineffective methods in combating
corruption.

This chapter is divided into three sections: the first addresses the nature of transparency and
corruption, the second examines the types of corruption, and the third explores anti-
corruption measures.
 Section One

The Nature of Transparency and Corruption

The following are definitions of transparency, integrity, and corruption:

First: Definition of Transparency and Integrity:

(1) Definition of transparency:

The Nature of Transparency and Corruption

1. Definition of Transparency
Transparency is a modern concept adopted by entities worldwide in their efforts to combat
corruption. It is considered a crucial tool for reducing and preventing corrupt practices.
Transparency is inherently linked to fundamental human rights, as citizens have the right to
access adequate information concerning transactions and decisions that affect their interests.

Transparency entails complete clarity in decision-making, the actions taken by authorities,

institutions, and public facilities, as well as in their relationships with employees, service
beneficiaries, and funders. Procedures, objectives, and purposes should be openly
communicated, while all relevant information and facts must be made available for monitoring
and accountability.

Key elements of transparency include clarity, disclosure, credibility, openness, and legality.
Strengthening transparency requires ensuring the exchange of information related to
corruption, disclosing it, and facilitating access to it. These measures enable the adoption of
preventive steps to pursue corrupt individuals, deter corrupt practices, and recover assets and
proceeds derived from corruption.

2. Definition of Integrity
Integrity refers to the commitment to fundamental values, principles, and work ethics that
individuals must uphold. It involves honesty, trustworthiness, sincerity, professionalism, and
avoiding harm to others. Transparency International has developed a Charter of Integrity for
governments, businesses, and civil society to address corruption, particularly in public
contracting.

While transparency and integrity are closely related, they differ in focus: transparency is
associated with systems and procedures, whereas integrity pertains to ethical and moral values.

3. Definition of Corruption
Transparency International defines corruption as the misuse of public office for personal or
group interests. More broadly, corruption encompasses any unlawful behavior involving the
abuse of public or private office for personal gain, or for securing benefits and privileges for
oneself or others.

This broad definition highlights the need to address corruption not only in the public sector but
also in the private sector, as private entities often play a significant role in corrupting public
institutions. Consequently, a comprehensive legal strategy is required to combat corruption
across government bodies, public enterprises, and private institutions.

Section Two

Types of corruption

Corruption manifests itself in various forms. Examples include financial,

administrative, and political corruption.

Types of Corruption

1. Financial Corruption
Financial corruption refers to deviations and violations of rules and regulations governing
administrative and financial processes within the state and its institutions. It often results in
decreased wages, arbitrary salary estimations, and the absence of adequate incentive systems,
rewards, and benefits that encourage adherence to work ethics. Such deficiencies may push
employees to seek illegitimate sources of income to cope with the rising cost of living.
The Egyptian legislature criminalizes major acts of corruption that undermine the integrity of
public service. These include bribery, embezzlement of public funds, money laundering, and
unlawful gain or enrichment:

• Bribery: Bribery occurs when a public official requests, accepts, or agrees to a bribe in
exchange for performing or refraining from performing duties. It involves three parties:

o The briber: the public official who accepts or solicits the bribe.

o The bribe giver: an individual who provides or offers the bribe in return for official
action.

o The intermediary: a third party who mediates between the two main parties and is
considered a partner in the crime.
According to the United Nations Convention against Corruption (2003), bribery can
occur domestically or through foreign and international officials.

• Embezzlement of Public Funds: This involves the abuse of entrusted public resources by
officials for personal use. Its consequences are severe, as it undermines both economic
stability and public trust. Article 17 of the United Nations Convention against Corruption
obliges states to criminalize the intentional embezzlement, misappropriation, or
mismanagement of public assets by officials.

• Money Laundering: Money laundering refers to disguising the illicit origins of wealth
obtained through corruption. This often involves transferring funds abroad, converting
them into gold or real estate, or using them in business transactions to conceal their illegal
source. Money laundering enables perpetrators to enjoy the proceeds of corruption while
avoiding accountability, complicating detection and justice.

• Illegal Gain or Enrichment: Illegal gain arises when public officials exploit legislative
loopholes to accumulate wealth disproportionate to their income. Article 20 of the United
Nations Convention against Corruption calls on states to criminalize significant increases in
assets that cannot be reasonably explained.
2. Administrative Corruption
Administrative corruption involves the misuse of power linked to public office through
nepotism, favoritism, and personal influence. It undermines institutional standards, hampers
development, and replaces efficiency with private interests, ultimately harming the public
good.

Forms of administrative corruption include:

• Exploiting Official Influence: Using authority for personal privileges, such as

monopolizing essential goods or services, engaging in illicit partnerships, or illegally
disposing of public property.

• Nepotism, Favoritism, and Mediation:

o Nepotism: granting benefits or opportunities to relatives, party members, or

individuals from a specific region without merit.

o Favoritism: privileging certain individuals in contracts or appointments,

regardless of eligibility.

o Mediation: appointing or favoring individuals based on kinship or political

affiliation rather than competence.

4. Political Corruption
Political corruption has gained prominence over the past two decades. It occurs when
political motives drive officials to neglect their duties in pursuit of partisan or group
interests. Examples include providing financial support to certain parties or individuals
in violation of the law, bias in the distribution of political positions, or leaking sensitive
information to unauthorized groups. Such practices undermine democratic governance
and erode public trust in political institutions.
 Section Three

Means of combating corruption

Egypt’s Supervisory Bodies and Preventive Measures to Combat Corruption

Egypt has diverse supervisory bodies combating corruption, each with specific roles,
competencies, and powers. These entities include the Public Funds Prosecution, the Illicit Gains
Authority, the Central Agency for Organization and Development (CAOD), the Administrative
Control Authority (ACA), the Public Funds Investigations Department, the Administrative
Prosecution, and local councils.

Preventive Measures to Combat Corruption

Combating corruption requires implementing procedural and temporary preventive measures
until legal action against the perpetrator is decided. These measures protect aggrieved parties
from delays in legal proceedings, prevent wrongdoers from hiding criminal proceeds,
transferring ownership to others, or laundering and smuggling funds abroad. They also help
preserve primary evidence and simplify asset recovery. Preventive measures include protecting
whistleblowers, victims, experts, and witnesses, seizing and freezing criminal proceeds, and
preventing money laundering through robust oversight of financial institutions. International
cooperation is essential for evidence collection, inspections, seizures, and tracking criminal
proceeds.

Compensation for Damages Caused by Corruption

Compensating victims of corruption is complex due to perpetrators’ influence and ability to
conceal violations. The 1999 Council of Europe Convention established common international
standards for compensating damages. Compensation ensures victims obtain full restitution,
complementing preventive measures.

Recovery of Assets Obtained from Corruption

Legislation obliges corrupt individuals to return unlawful enrichment and requires third parties
who benefited from it to reimburse the state. Recovery is pursued within two years of the
offender’s death and often involves international cooperation to trace and reclaim assets.
Confiscation of Assets and Return to Owners
Authorities may confiscate assets obtained through corruption or property used to commit
corrupt acts. This includes proceeds, replacements, or mixed assets, ensuring the public
recovers the full value of illicit gains.

Nullity of Contracts Tainted by Corruption

Contracts tainted by corruption are considered illegal and may be annulled. Victims have the
right to seek compensation, and courts can nullify contracts on their own initiative.
Transparency International’s “Pact of Integrity” requires contracting parties to avoid bribery or
collusion, covering all stages of contract negotiation and execution. Violations result in contract
nullity, forfeiture of guarantees, and potential blacklisting to prevent future market
participation.

Other Means of Combating Corruption

1. Strengthening criminal and civil penalties, including measures addressing cyber

corruption, unauthorized electronic access, and digital evidence manipulation.

2. Enacting comprehensive anti-corruption legislation aligned with the UN Convention

against Corruption (2003), ensuring whistleblower and witness protection.

3. Enhancing international judicial and procedural cooperation for civil liability and
activating relevant international agreements.

4. Implementing in rem confiscation of assets and proceeds of corruption, along with the
confiscation of tools used or intended for corrupt acts, and promoting international
collaboration in these efforts.

These combined measures create a robust framework for preventing, detecting, and punishing
corruption in Egypt while safeguarding public resources and promoting transparency and
accountability.
 Chapter 4
The Tolerance of Religions and the Manners of
Dialogue with the Other

The Tolerance of Religions and the Manners of Dialogue with the Other

In the Name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful

Introduction to the Tolerance of Religions and

Observing the Manners of Dialogue with the Other

First: The Importance of the Subject and the Role of Religion in Building a
Flourishing Civilisation

The Tolerance of Religions and Observing the Manners of Dialogue with the Other

The focus on "The Tolerance of Religions and Observing the Manners of Dialogue with the
Other" reflects humanity's pursuit of its ideal growth. It envisions a future where people live
securely in peace, free from violence and terror, and a society rich in scientific and cultural
knowledge, guided by the universal spirit of humanity that embraces diversity. This contributes
to the establishment of a righteous civilization founded on virtues such as tolerance,
compassion, and love, fostering mutual understanding, collaboration, and dialogue that unites
rather than divides.

Receiving and practicing religion, whether singular or plural, must occur within a framework
that respects human dignity and responsibility. Individuals are accountable for managing their
affairs and contributing to the construction of a just and moral civilization. True religion does
not isolate its followers from the natural and social laws of the world; rather, it serves as the
call of truth and the voice of conscience. It awakens the negligence, guides the lost, eases the
burden of those who stumble, corrects wrongs, comforts the afflicted, and inspires hearts
striving with purity and peace.
While sacred texts differ in language, expression, and ritual, they commonly affirm the worship
of God – Exalted be He – and guide humans in accordance with His eternal truth. Humans, as
the noblest creation, are inseparable from their temporal and spatial reality and bear
responsibility for their choices, conduct, and contribution to civilization. Individual
understanding of religion may vary; it reflects personal insight rather than an infallible or
universal truth.

Second: Research Plan and Methodology

This research addresses the concept of religious tolerance and the observance of proper
dialogue with others through three main sections and a concluding part, structured as follows:

Section One: Definition of the Title's Terms

This section consists of five topics:

1. Definition of tolerance, its religious significance, and global recognition of its value.

2. Definition of religion, its importance, and the cognitive sources of its creed.

3. Definition of manners, their importance, sources, and religious significance.

4. Definition of dialogue and argument, the difference between them, and the benefits of
dialogue.

5. Definition of the Other and the inevitability of its existence.

Section Two: Religious Tolerance

This section consists of four topics:

1. Religious tolerance in transactions.

2. Religious tolerance in social interactions.

3. Religious tolerance in belonging, preventing violence, terrorism, and takfir

(excommunication).
 4. Religious tolerance in achieving good character, social peace, and national unity.

Section Three: Observing the Manners of Dialogue with Others

This section consists of six topics:

1. Acknowledgment of Human Brotherhood and the Right to Differ.

2. Embracing a Culture of Peace and Living Together.

3. Benefiting from Culture and Cultural Exchange.

4. Listening and Respecting Public Freedoms.

5. Self-Control, Rejecting Betrayal, Threats, and Terrorism.

6. Concluding with the Beautiful and Virtuous Aspects of Morality.

Conclusion: The Egyptian Personality Between Illness and Recovery in Religious Tolerance

The research employs simple and straightforward language with clarity and directness of
meaning. It adheres to methods of substantiation, induction, analysis, and inference to convey
the issues effectively. The aim is to provide readers with knowledge and encourage further
exploration of human development, nobility, and proper manners in dialogue. This important
topic lays the foundation for future generations, with even greater significance to come, God
willing.

Cairo, 19 November 2022

Author: Prof. Saad Al-Din Masoud Hallali
Reviewers: His Grace Bishop Ermiah and Sheikh Khaled Al-Gindy

First Section
Defining the terminology included in the Title.
First Point: Definition of Tolerance, Its Religious Significance, and Global Recognition of Its
Value
Definition of Tolerance

• In Arabic, tolerance refers to ease, softness, and forgiveness. It also implies making
things easy and being lenient.

• The tolerance of religions refers to their ease, facilitation, comfort to the soul, peace,
nobility, or generosity towards others.

• In human interactions, tolerance is a good treatment, following ethical standards,

avoiding harshness, or being overly demanding.

Importance of Religious Tolerance

Religious texts emphasize tolerance for salvation in the Hereafter, earning the love of people in
this world, opening doors of sustenance, avoiding miserliness, and embodying noble deeds. The
evidence includes:

1. Hope for Salvation in the Hereafter

o Qur’an: "And the servants of (God) Most Gracious are those who walk on the
earth in humility, and when the ignorant address them, they say, 'Peace!'" (Surah
Al-Furqan, 25:63)

o Prophetic Saying: "Those who show mercy will be shown mercy by the Most
Merciful. Show mercy to those on earth, and the One in the heavens will show
mercy to you." (Ahmad, Abu Dawood, At-Tirmidhi)

o Another Prophetic Saying: "The Fire is forbidden for every gentle, kind, and easy-
going person near people." (Ahmad, At-Tirmidhi, Ibn Hibban)

o Bible: "Blessed are the merciful, for they will be shown mercy." (Matthew 5:7)

2. Earning the Love and Trust of People

 o Qur’an: "It is part of the Mercy of God that thou dost deal gently with them...
consult them in affairs... put thy trust in God. For God loves those who put their
trust in Him." (Surah Aal-E-Imran, 3:159)

o Prophetic Saying: "Shall I not tell you about something that, if you do it, you will
love one another? Spread peace among yourselves." (Muslim, from Abu Huraira)

o Another Prophetic Saying: "The peak of wisdom, after faith in Allah, is to be close
to people." (At-Tabarani, At-Tayalisi, from Ali ibn Abi Talib)

o Bible: "A new command I give you: Love one another. As I have loved you, you
must love one another." (John 13:34)

3. Opening Doors of Sustenance

o Qur’an: "And for those who fear God, He (ever) prepares a way out, and He
provides for him from (sources) he never could imagine." (Surah At-Talaq, 65:2-
3)

o Prophetic Saying: "May Allah have mercy on a man who is lenient when he sells,
when he buys, and when he demands payment." (Al-Bukhari, Jabir ibn Abdullah)

o Bible: "I have been young and now am old; yet I have not seen the righteous
forsaken, nor his descendants begging bread." (Psalm 37:25)

4. Abstaining from Miserliness and Stinginess

o Qur’an: "And entertain no desire in their hearts for things given to the latter, but
give them preference over themselves, even though poverty was their lot..."
(Surah Al-Hashr, 59:9)

o Prophetic Saying: "Two qualities cannot be found in a believer: miserliness and

bad manners." (At-Tirmidhi, Al-Bayhaqi, Abu Sa’eed Al-Khudri)
 o Another Prophetic Saying: "Beware of miserliness, for those before you were
destroyed by it..." (Abu Dawood, Al-Hakim, Abdullah bin Amr)

o Bible: "No worse evil exists than miserliness. Why should earth and ashes be
proud?" (Sirach 10:9)

5. Embodying the Best of Deeds to Win Souls and Earn Respect

o Qur’an: "So overlook (any human faults) with gracious forgiveness. For verily it is
thy Lord Who is the Master-Creator, Knowing all things." (Surah Al-Hijr, 15:85-
86)

o Qur’an: "But turn away from them And say 'Peace!' But soon shall they know!"
(Surah Az-Zukhruf, 43:89)

o Prophetic Saying: "A man asked, 'O Prophet of Allah, which action is best?' He
replied, 'Faith in Allah, affirming His truth, and striving in His cause.' The man
asked, 'Is there anything easier than this?' He said, 'Clemency and patience.'"
(Ahmad, Ubada bin As-Samit)

o Bible: "Be kind to one another, tenderhearted, forgiving one another, as God in
Christ forgave you." (Ephesians 4:32)

This summary highlights the foundational role of tolerance in religious teachings, human
interaction, and societal harmony.

Third Point: Global Recognition of the Value of Tolerance

• The United Nations, established in 1945, has been a global platform for promoting
peace and tolerance. One of its significant initiatives was the declaration of 16
November as the International Day for Tolerance in 1996, aiming to consolidate values
of tolerance, respect, and solidarity while rejecting prejudice, hatred, and
discrimination.
 • In 1995, UNESCO declared it the “Year of Tolerance”, during which member states
adopted a declaration of principles emphasizing:

1. Tolerance does not mean compromising principles or indifference but respecting

and appreciating cultural and human diversity.

2. Tolerance acknowledges universal human rights and fundamental freedoms of

others.

3. Tolerance is both a moral duty and a political/legal requirement for individuals,

groups, and states.

4. The establishment of a UNESCO award for tolerance:

▪ Named after Mr. Madanjeet Singh, a UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador,

philanthropist, writer, and diplomat from India.

▪ Presented biennially on the International Day for Tolerance to individuals

or organizations promoting understanding, non-violence, and solving
international or national issues.

Second Point: Definition of Religion, Its Importance, and Cognitive Sources of Belief

1. Definition of Religion (‫ – الدين‬al-Deen)

• Linguistic Meaning: Submission, adherence, or following, including habits and conduct.

Plural form Adyaan refers to the diversity of religions.

• Scriptural Meaning: Submission to known rituals and acceptance of sacred books

according to jurisprudential requirements.

• Human Custom Perspective: The belief an individual sincerely adopts and surrenders to
as an act of worship.
 • Qur’anic Perspective: Islam (submission to God) represents the religion in the sight of
God. Examples:

o “The Religion before God is Islam (submission to His will).” (Surah Al-Imran, 3:19)

o Submission coupled with righteous deeds is the standard for all humans: “Nay
whoever submits his whole self to God and is a doer of good he will get his
reward with his Lord; on such shall be no fear nor shall they grieve.” (Surah Al-
Baqarah, 2:112)

o “To each among you have We prescribed a Law and an Open Way...” (Surah Al-
Ma’idah, 48) – illustrating diversity of belief and accountability to God.

• Principle of Religious Justice: Humans are accountable for their beliefs; salvation is
ultimately judged by God. Scholars’ role is to advise and guide, not coerce.

2. Importance of Religion

• Religion fulfills the human need for spiritual satisfaction and moral guidance.

• It provides knowledge of the Creator, human duties, the afterlife, and justice for all.

• Religion cannot be fully comprehended through natural sciences; it is conveyed through

revelation to prophets and messengers, validated through trustworthy narratives.

3. Cognitive Sources of Religious Beliefs (‫ – العقيدة‬al- ‘Aqeedah)

• Derived from the Arabic root ‘aqada (to tie or bind), indicating beliefs firmly held by a
person.

• Sources of belief include:

1. Sacred scriptures.

2. Narrations and sayings of prophets and messengers.

 3. Interpretations, ijtihad, and scholarly reasoning based on scriptures and
narrations.

4. Esoteric or inner knowledge, including intuition, divine inspiration, or visionary

experiences.

Next Point: Definition of Manners, Its Importance, Sources, and Religious Significance

We can proceed to elaborate this next section, highlighting how manners relate to ethics, social
interaction, and religious guidance.

First: Definition of Manners:

Definition of Manners, Its Importance, Sources, and Religious Significance

First: Definition of Manners (‫ – آداب‬Adaab)

• In Arabic, ‫( آداب‬adaab) is the plural of ‫( أدب‬adab), meaning good character and

performing noble deeds.

• The root ‫( أدب‬adab) comes from ‫( دعاء‬doaa), meaning “invitation.” For instance, food
people are invited to is called ‫( مأدبة‬maadaba) – a banquet.

Social Terminology:

• General Meaning: Adopting good character and performing noble deeds in interactions
with all people.

• Specific Meaning: The science of adab, which, according to Ibn Khaldun, has no fixed
subject matter but encompasses everything the human mind produces, influencing
thought and action across various types of knowledge.

Second: Importance of Manners

1. Respecting and honoring oneself through good character.

2. Reducing disagreements and conflicts via self-control.

 3. Achieving peaceful coexistence and social acceptance.

4. Eliminating sectarianism and religious fanaticism.

5. Elevating public morals to the highest, noblest levels.

Third: Sources of Manners

1. Natural Disposition: Humans are born with inherent moral honor, love of kindness, and
aversion to violence.

2. Social Customs: Accumulated life experiences and human interaction.

3. Religion: Divine messages based on piety and the observance of God’s rights, human
rights, and respect for the environment.

Fourth: Religious Significance of Manners

• If manners are good character and noble deeds, then religion itself is essentially
manners. Ibn al-Qayyim (1292–1350 CE) stated: “Religion is all about character.
Whoever surpasses you in character surpasses you in religion.”

• Prophets and Messengers exemplify the highest morals for humanity:

1. Abraham (peace be upon him):

o Qur’an: “Abraham was, without doubt, forbearing, compassionate, and given to

look to God.” (Surah Hud, 75)

o Bible: “Abraham was a great father of many nations… he kept the law of the
Highest.” (Book of Sirach 44:20)

2. Moses (peace be upon him):

o Qur’an: “Mention in the Book (the story of) Moses: for he was specially chosen,
and he was an apostle and a prophet.” (Surah Maryam, 51)
 o Bible: “Now the man Moses was very meek, more than all the people on the face
of the earth.” (Numbers 12:3)

3. Jesus (peace be upon him):

o Qur’an: “His name will be Christ Jesus, son of Mary, held in honor in this world
and the Hereafter…” (Surah Al-Imran, 45)

o Bible: “He will not quarrel nor cry out… till he brings justice to victory.” (Matthew
12:19–20)

4. Muhammad (peace be upon him):

o Qur’an: “And thou standest on an exalted standard of character.” (Surah Al-

Qalam, 4)

o Prophetic Saying: “I was only sent to perfect noble character.” (Narrated by al-
Bazzar, al-Hakim, and al-Bayhaqi)

4. Definition of Dialogue and Argument, Their Differences, and Benefits

First: Definition of Dialogue (‫ – حوار‬Hewar)

• Derived from muhawara (‫)المحاورة‬, meaning conversation, reasoning, and logical

discussion.

• Root ‫( حار‬hara) implies change from one state to another.

• Also used metaphorically: a newborn camel is called ‫حوار‬, which becomes ‫فصيل‬once
weaned.

Second: Definition of Argument (‫ – جدال‬Gidal)

• Derived from mujadala (‫)المجادلة‬, meaning disputation or argumentation.

• Origin relates to tightening a rope, representing the effort to untangle and counter the
opponent’s logic.
Third: Difference Between Dialogue and Argument

• Dialogue (‫)حوار‬: Mutual exchange to clarify issues and reach understanding.

• Argument (‫)جدال‬: Contradictory negotiation aimed at invalidating the other’s logic.

Fourth: Benefits of Dialogue

1. Exchange of ideas and experiences.

2. Development of critical thinking and mental stimulation.

3. Generation of new ideas.

4. Correction of false or incorrect notions.

5. Facilitates reaching the truth.

6. Bridges cultural gaps and promotes understanding.

5. Definition of the Other and the Inevitability of Its Existence

First: Definition of the Other (‫ – اآلخر‬Alakhar)

1. Linguistic Meaning:

o ‫( اآلخر‬Alakhar) in Arabic means “the other” or “the different one.”

o Example: ‫( رجل آخر‬rajul akhar) – “another man”; ‫( ثوب آخر‬thawb akhar) –

“another garment.”

o Root: ‫( أأخر‬aakhar), derived on the ‫( أفعل‬afaal) pattern. When two hamzas occur
together, the second becomes an alif due to linguistic rules. Diminutive form:
‫( أويخر‬ouaykher).

2. Philosophical Meaning:

o In existentialist thought, ‫اآلخر‬represents the real difference between the “I” and
the “you,” forming a foundation for self-awareness.
 3. In Politicised or Racist Religion:

o Here, ‫اآلخر‬refers to anyone outside a group claiming exclusive salvation in the

afterlife—whether under the banner of Islam, Christianity, Judaism, or other
religions.

o Such extremist ideologies monopolize truth, exalting themselves over others and
producing hatred, conflict, and fanaticism, which are contrary to the genuine
spirit of religion.

o This misuse politicizes religion, creating social, economic, or political systems

based on recruitment and exclusion, falsely attributing human-made systems to
divine authority.

Implication:

• Humanity’s safety depends on returning religion to God alone and preventing its
politicization. Religion should guide the personal relationship between humans and their
Creator, empowering self-awareness and spiritual responsibility.

• Citizens then live as masters of a sovereign homeland, united by cooperation,

generosity, compassion, and love—without discrimination based on race or religion.

Second: The Necessity of the Other’s Existence

• Diversity and difference are inherent in humanity; no two individuals are identical.

• Attempts to replicate one’s identity in others, especially in religion, contradict natural

law. Every individual has a unique religious and moral “fingerprint,” and the right to
compete in sincerity, purity of heart, and fulfilment of divine trusts.

• Recognition of the Other is unavoidable:

Qur’anic Evidence:

1. “If thy Lord had so willed, He could have made mankind one people: but they will not
cease to dispute, except those on whom thy Lord Hath bestowed His Mercy: and for this
did He create them...” (Surah Hud 11:118–119)

2. “And among His Signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the variations in
your languages and your colors: verily in that are Signs for those who know.” (Surah AR-
Rum 30:22)

Biblical Evidence:

• “He gives to all people life and breath and everything else. From one man he made every
nation of men, that they should inhabit the whole earth. He determined the times set for
them and the exact places where they should live, so that they would seek God and
perhaps reach out for him and find him.” (Acts 17:25–27)

Conclusion:

• The existence of the Other is a divine necessity. Human diversity—cultural, linguistic,

religious—is intended for mutual understanding, peaceful coexistence, and the
recognition of individual responsibility toward God.

• Accepting and respecting the Other is a foundation for tolerance, dialogue, and the
building of a righteous, harmonious civilization.
 Section Two

Religious Tolerance

Religious Tolerance

Religious tolerance refers to leniency, ease of soul, peace, and recognition of the Other. To
promote tolerance globally, the United Nations General Assembly in 1996 designated 16
November as the "International Day for Tolerance."

This section examines tolerance in religions in four contexts: transactions, social interactions,
inclusive belonging preventing violence, and the promotion of good manners, social peace,
and national unity. Each is clarified through rational evidence, textual evidence, examples,
and outcomes.

First: Religious Tolerance in Transactions

1. Meaning of Tolerance in Transactions:

• Aspect 1: Facilitation of contracts based on mutual interest, free from tribalism, while
adhering to national security and public order.

• Aspect 2: Simplifying religious jurisprudential rules for contracts, emphasizing mutual

consent.

2. Rational Evidence:

• Closed contracts constrain life and turn religion into a burden.

• Complex contract procedures contradict the ease and facilitation that religion promotes.

3. Textual Evidence:

• Qur’an:

o “O ye who believe! fulfil (all) obligations.” (Surah Al-Majidah 5:1)

 o “…and fulfil (Every) engagement, for (every) engagement will be enquired into.”
(Surah Al-Isra 17:34)

o “…traffic and trade by mutual good-will…” (Surah An-Nisa 4:29)

• Hadith:

o “Muslims are bound by their stipulations.” (Al-Bukhari, Al-Hakim)

o “Fulfil the trust to whom you are entrusted…” (Ahmad, Abu Dawood)

• Bible: “Do not extort money from anyone by force or false accusation…” (Luke 3:12-13)

• Torah: “…who makes his neighbor work for nothing and does not give him his wages.”
(Jeremiah 22:13)

4. Forms of Religious Tolerance in Transactions:

• Intrinsic Tolerance: Simplified, adaptable contracts suitable for each era and culture.

• Mutual Tolerance: Historical examples include the Prophet Muhammad’s interactions

with non-Muslims, such as protection of Abu Talib and transactions with Jewish
merchants, and protection of Muslims by non-Muslims like the Negus and Egyptian
Copts.

5. Outcomes of Tolerance in Transactions:

• Expansion of livelihood and trade.

• Faster construction and project completion.

• Advancement in medicine, education, and services.

• Social peace and national unity, strengthening the state.

Second: Religious Tolerance in Social Interactions

1. Meaning:

• Aspect 1: Kindness and charity in social interactions: good neighborliness, visiting the
sick, attending funerals, congratulating on happy occasions.

• Aspect 2: Encouraging human social interactions over purely ritualistic practices.

2. Rational Evidence:

• Cutting off kindness leads to hatred for religion.

• Neglecting social interactions fosters laziness and hinders investment in social well-
being.

3. Textual Evidence:

• Qur’an:

o “God forbids you not… from dealing kindly and justly with them.” (Surah Al-
Mumtahanah 60:8)

o “When a (courteous) greeting is offered, you meet it with a greeting still more
courteous.” (Surah An-Nisa 4:86)

• Hadith:

o “Jibril continued to advise me about treating neighbors kindly…” (Bukhari &

Muslim)

o “Feeding the hungry and spreading peace…” (Bukhari & Muslim)

o “…visit the sick, follow funerals, fulfil oaths, help the oppressed, spread peace…”
(Baraa bin Aazib)

• Bible: “…live at peace with everyone.” (Romans 12:18)

 • Torah: “The stranger residing among you must be treated as your native-born…”
(Leviticus 19:34)

4. Examples:

• Intrinsic Tolerance: Encouraging prayers, acts of goodness, and ethical behavior suitable
to time and place.

• Mutual Tolerance:

o Prophet Muhammad attending the funeral of a Jew.

o Caring for sick or deceased non-Muslims by Muslims.

o Mixing of Muslims with non-Muslims in Medina as equal citizens.

o Non-Muslims showing kindness to Muslims, such as gifts from the Muqawqis and
the ruler of Egypt.

Outcome:

• Social cohesion, mutual respect, and a foundation for civilization-wide tolerance, visible
today in Muslim-majority societies and globally, when extremist shortcomings are
overlooked.

Fruits of Religious Tolerance in Social Life and Belonging

Religious tolerance brings numerous benefits, including:

• Upholding universal human values: Promotes acquaintance among people, strengthens

social bonds, encourages social peace, and reinforces the state’s ability to face
challenges.

Third Section: Religious Tolerance in Belonging That Prevents Violence, Terrorism, and Takfir

1. Introduction:
 • Violence: Severity or cruelty intentionally targeting the self or others.

• Terrorism: Causing harm or destruction in society as a means of political pressure,

without targeting a specific individual.

• Takfir: Derived from kafara (covering), it can mean:

1. Concealing a sin or compensating with charity or fasting.

2. Declaring another person a denier of one’s religion (religious takfir).

Religious takfir often leads to enmity and hatred, contradicting the principle of coexistence.
Takfir should only apply when a person knowingly and unjustly rejects established truth in their
heart. Otherwise, judgment is left to God, the Knower of the Unseen.

Qur’anic Evidence:

• “So, when that came to them which they recognized, they disbelieved in it.” (Surah Al-
Baqarah: 89)

• “And they denied it while their hearts were convinced of it, out of injustice and
arrogance.” (Surah An-Naml: 14)

• “…Those who have lost themselves are the ones who do not believe.” (Surah Al-An’am:
20)

Principle: Takfir should not be used due to differences in belief or rituals; each party meets God
with their own understanding of faith. Takfir is only justified for aggressors committing religious
persecution.

2. Meaning of Religious Tolerance in Belonging

a. Between religions:

• Affiliation to a religion should promote peace and tolerance.

• Violence, terrorism, and unjust takfir should be avoided.

b. Within religions:

• True religious belonging fosters tolerance, eases hardship, and prevents extremism.

• Religion encourages an easier path, avoiding conflict and harm.

3. Rational Evidence for Tolerance in Belonging

Aspect 1:

• Without tolerance, religion becomes a source of arrogance, hatred, and social isolation.

• Mutual understanding and generosity require religion to deter violence, terrorism, and
takfir.

Aspect 2:

• Inherent tolerance attracts people to religion, as harshness and extremism repel them.

• Believers should compete to demonstrate tolerance in their religious practice.

4. Textual Evidence

a. Qur’an:

• “He has chosen you and has imposed no difficulties on you in religion.” (Al-Hajj: 78)

• “…those who believe and follow the Jewish, Christian, or Sabian faiths… shall have no
fear nor shall they grieve.” (Al-Baqarah: 62)

• “God doth wish to lighten your difficulties…” (An-Nisa: 28)

• “…make not your own hands contribute to your destruction but do good.” (Al-Baqarah:
195)

b. Hadith:

• “None of you believes until he loves for the people what he loves for himself.” (Ahmad)
 • “The Muslim is the one from whose tongue and hand the people are safe.” (Ahmad, al-
Nasa’i)

• “Indeed, your blood, your wealth, your honor, and your bodies are forbidden to you.”
(Bukhari, Muslim)

c. Bible:

• “Let us therefore make every effort to do what leads to peace and mutual edification.”
(Romans 14:19)

d. Torah:

• “You shall not wrong a stranger or oppress him, for you were strangers in the land of
Egypt.” (Exodus 22:21)

5. Examples of Religious Tolerance in Belonging

A. Inherent Tolerance:

• Religion is entrusted to God; prophets and scholars deliver the message without
enforcing takfir.

• Everyone is free to believe in their own faith, preventing discord and fitna.

• Qur’an: “To you be your way, and to me mine.” (Al-Kafirun: 6)

B. Reciprocal Tolerance:

• Prophets and messengers lived safely among non-believers without persecution.

• Non-Muslims coexisted peacefully with Prophet Muhammad and his companions in

Medina.

• Historical conquests (ghazawat or fotohat) were security battles, not religious wars.
 • Forced religious wars and debates historically led to destruction and distracted societies
from progress.

• Example: Abbasid Caliph al-Ma’mun’s theological trials; European wars over religion
(1096–1291 CE) delayed civilisation and innovation.

Outcome:

• Abandoning violence, terrorism, and takfir allows societies to focus on industrial,

medical, technological, and educational development, as well as advancements in AI,
space exploration, and climate change mitigation.

Fruits of Religious Tolerance in Belonging

Religious tolerance in belonging produces multiple benefits:

• Peaceful coexistence: Enables ‫( خشوع‬khoshou')—reverence in worship—and drives

development, prosperity, and reconstruction.

• Intellectual and moral enrichment: Fosters respect for human beings, encourages
competition in achieving good character, and raises the value of people among nations.

4. Religious Tolerance in Achieving Good Character, Social Peace, and National Unity

1. Meaning of Religious Tolerance of Goals

• First Aspect:

o Religious goals are universal human values.

o Their tolerance includes both believers and non-believers, achievable only

through good character, social peace, and national unity.

o Al-Amidi (631 AH) highlights preservation of religion, soul, mind, offspring, and
wealth. Al-Shatibi (790 AH) notes these as essential human necessities.
 • Second Aspect:

o Modern needs expand these goals to include good character, social peace, and
national unity, necessary for stability and prosperity.

2. Rational Evidence for Religious Tolerance of Goals

• Aspect 1:

o Universal religious goals must include all people to prevent injustice,

exploitation, or conflict over differences in religion.

• Aspect 2:

o Limiting goals to the traditional five would make religions appear inflexible;
adding new goals reflects their inherent tolerance.

3. Textual Evidence

a. Qur’an:

• “O mankind! We created you from a single (pair)… that ye may know each other (not
that ye may despise each other). The most honored in the sight of God is the most
righteous of you.” (Al-Hujurat 13)

• “…Our Lord will gather us together and will decide in truth and justice: He knows all.”
(Saba 24-26)

• “We did indeed offer the trust to the Heavens and the Earth and the Mountains; but they
refused… but man undertook it…” (Al-Ahzab 72)

b. Hadith:

• “Beware of injustice to the covenantor… and taking more than his due is a disgrace.”
(Abu Dawood)
 • “The most perfect of believers in faith are those with the best character… those who
bring people together are most beloved.” (Al-Tabarani)

c. Bible:

• “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” (Matthew 7:12)

d. Torah:

• “Turn away from evil and do good; seek peace and pursue it.” (Psalm 34:14)

4. Examples of Religious Tolerance in Goals

• A. Inherent Tolerance:

o Religious goals are general, allowing discretionary prioritization according to

ability without forcing hierarchy among them.

• B. Reciprocal Tolerance:

o Goals proven for one religion apply to others, respecting the principle of justice
and fairness.

5. Fruits of Religious Tolerance in Goals

• Respect for all religions’ unified goals despite differences in ritual laws.

• Spreading a culture of religious justice rather than supremacy.

• Flexibility to add new universal goals as needed, guided by jurisprudential observation.

Section Three: Observing the Manners of Dialogue with Others

Meaning:

• Adopting the best moral virtues in addressing others.

• Dialogue improves as human nature, culture, and knowledge expand.

 • United Nations recognition: 21 May, World Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and
Development (established 2001, after the destruction of Buddha statues in Bamiyan by
the Taliban).

Key Manners of Dialogue:

1. Recognize human brotherhood and the right to difference.

2. Uphold a culture of peace and coexistence.

3. Benefit from cultural and civilizational exchange.

4. Listen and respect public freedoms.

5. Control oneself; reject betrayal, threats, and terrorism.

6. Conclude dialogues with moral virtues, mirroring the way they began.

Explaining the Six Manners of Dialogue

1. Recognizing Human Brotherhood and the Right to Difference

Meaning: Acknowledging others’ brotherhood—solidarity, love, and humanity—while granting
the right to differ in opinion and belief. This is a fundamental basis for fruitful dialogue. Human
brotherhood is a natural reality based on the unity of origin for all humans, without
discrimination based on religion, language, color, race, or gender. It functions as an unwritten
social contract founded on equality in rights, duties, and freedoms, and relies on kindness,
compassion, and love.
Need: To promote “rational humanity” that respects individuals, values diversity, and
encourages mutual understanding. Cultural, religious, and linguistic diversity strengthens
human brotherhood.
Importance and Evidence:

• UN Resolutions: World Interfaith Harmony Week (2010) and International Day of

Human Fraternity (2021).
 • Egyptian Constitution (2014): Articles 53 and 64 guarantee equality, rights, and
absolute freedom of belief.

• Document on Human Fraternity (2019): Affirms pluralism and rejects forced adherence
to religion or culture.
Fruits: Promotes human rights, peace, diversity, and effective dialogue.

2. Embracing a Culture of Peace and Living Together

Meaning: Dialogue must be founded on peace and coexistence, respecting life, human rights,
and sustainable development.
Need: Ensures “safe humanity,” enabling survival, progress, and performance of religious
rituals.
Importance and Evidence:

• UN Resolutions: International Day of Peace (21 September) to promote peace and

ceasefire.

• Egyptian Constitution (2014): Articles 54 and 59 ensure personal freedom, safety, and
peace of mind.

• Document on Human Fraternity (2019): Religious teachings encourage mutual

understanding and harmonious coexistence.
Fruits: Safeguards dialogue, supports sustainable development, promotes rights and
freedoms, strengthens cooperation, and prevents hostilities.

3. Benefiting from Culture and Cultural Exchange

Meaning: Engaging with other cultures, adapting to differing ideas, and integrating perspectives
to enrich knowledge and create new cultural developments. Culture fosters skillfulness,
knowledge, and empowerment; civilization enables increased cultural production.
Need: Establishes understanding among humanity through civilizational dialogue.
Importance and Evidence:
 • UN Resolutions: Year of Dialogue Among Civilizations (2001), World Day for Cultural
Diversity (21 May 2001), International Year for the Rapprochement of Cultures (2010).

• Egyptian Constitution (2014): Articles 19 and 48 support education and cultural access
for all.

• Document on Human Fraternity (2019): Promotes tolerance and peaceful coexistence

to reduce societal problems.
Fruits: Opens dialogue, prevents conflicts, establishes human-cultural cooperation,
fosters civilizational alliances and integration, and respects creative diversity.

4. Listening and Respecting Public Freedoms

Meaning: Listening attentively without interruption and respecting public freedoms such as life,
dignity, thought, conscience, religion, and expression.
Need: Protects “honored humanity” by ensuring mutual respect and understanding.
Importance and Evidence:

• UN Resolutions: Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), Articles 18 and 19.

• Egyptian Constitution (2014): Articles 51, 64, 65, 92, 93 safeguard dignity, belief,
opinion, and adherence to international human rights.

• OIC Declaration (2020): Guarantees equality, freedom of thought, conscience, religion,

opinion, and expression.
Fruits: Enables understanding, cooperation, tolerance, and peaceful coexistence.

5. Self-Control, Rejecting Betrayal, Threats, and Terrorism

Meaning: Practicing patience and refraining from treachery, threats, or terrorism, focusing on
constructive outcomes rather than reactive behavior.
Need: Cultivates “trustworthy humanity,” accelerating social peace, coexistence, and
sustainable development.
Importance and Evidence:
 • UN Resolutions: Counter-Terrorism measures (2001, 2006) addressing terrorism as a
global threat.

• Egyptian Constitution (2014): Article 237 mandates combating terrorism while

safeguarding rights and freedoms.

• Document on Human Fraternity (2019): Denounces terrorism as a misinterpretation of

religion, emphasizing social, economic, and political causes.
Fruits: Ensures measured responses, balanced thinking, global security, and sustainable
development.

6. Concluding with the Beautiful and Virtuous Aspects of Morality

Meaning: Always end interactions with good morals and virtue, even if circumstances are
difficult, leaving the door open for further understanding and tolerance.
Need: Preserves “noble humanity,” emphasizing ethical behavior in all situations.
Importance and Evidence: All religions and contemporary civilizations highlight the virtue of
good character, reinforced by ethical charters, research, and historical wisdom.
Fruits: Strengthens trust, sustains moral dialogue, and ensures continuity of civilized, peaceful
interactions.

We will explain this in the following:

A. The Virtue of Good Morals in the Poetry of Wise People

Abu al-Fath al-Busti (Bust, Afghanistan, 942–1010 CE) said:

"Turn to the soul and complete its virtues,
For you are human by the soul, not by the body.
And if someone wrongs you, let your response be
Turning his offence into forgiveness and pardon."

He also said:
"Be good to people;
you will enslave their hearts,
For as long as a person is enslaved,
it is by kindness."

Abu al-Ala al-Ma'arri (Ma'arra, Idlib, Syria, 973–1057 CE) said:

"Imprison me if I am praised for my character,
But do not imprison me for being Mahmoud, the king.
What the head ties with crowns, it unravels,
For after death, it's just a skull."

Saadi al-Din al-Hilli (Baghdad, 1277–1349 CE) said:

"If a man lacks beautiful character
With which he prevails, then there is no beauty of character."

Ahmad Shawqi (Egypt, 1868–1932 CE) said:

"The rectitude of your affairs returns to ethics,
So, straighten your soul with good ethics."
He also said:
"Nations are only as good as their morals,
For if their morals go away, they go away."
And:
"And if a people are afflicted in their morals,
Then mourn and wail for them."

Fruits of Ending as You Began with the Most Appropriate of Good Morals:

• Nobility of character among participants in dialogue.

• Spreading a culture of tolerance, patience, and forbearance.

• Acquiring knowledge and building friendships.

• Drying up sources of strife and hatred.

• Promoting social peace and civilizational advancement.

 Conclusion

The Egyptian personality between illness and recovery

in terms of religious tolerance

Since the dawn of history, the Egyptian personality has been characterized by the pure human
nature God bestowed on people of different races, colors, languages, livelihoods, minds,
sciences, beliefs, dreams, and pains. This diversity has been embraced, enriching Egypt's unified
and tolerant personality that accepts the other. The unity and strength of the Egyptian
personality were increased by its love for the religion of God Almighty in its known historical
stages, its different sacred books in their languages and laws, the latter of which confirms the
earlier, and its noble messengers who conveyed the message of their Lord and blessed the
good land of Egypt with their feet. The people of Egypt set an example for their unified and
tolerant personality that accepts everyone, with good faith, in the differences of their religions,
which God has entrusted to them.

Thus, the great Egyptian personality became one cohesive entity, a strong force assimilating the
civilizations of colonizers and their diverse cultures. It emerged with independence and
regained sovereignty through a beautiful national alignment devoid of sectarian, religious, or
gender biases.

As Egypt began to renew its ancient civilization in the early 20th century, it faced a religious
discourse alien to its inclusive culture, a hostile and excommunicative discourse towards the
other. This discourse advocated sectarianism, denominationalism, and gender discrimination,
claiming divine authorization to rule over people in politics, economy, and all aspects of life –
known as political Islam, led by the terrorist group the Muslim Brotherhood and its supporters.

The Muslim Brotherhood and its supporters followed a policy of enticement and intimidation in
their pursuit of power. The enticement was for those easily recruited with the lie of granting
them the title of "Muslim Brother or Sister" and the honor of "jihad in the path of God" to
secure their loyalty to their governing agenda and the establishment of their so-called Islamic
Caliphate. Intimidation targeted those resistant to their control, using excommunication,
terrorism, strife, assassination, burning, and explosions. They previously assassinated the
former Prime Minister Mahmoud Fahmi El-Noqrashy in December 1948 after discovering his
government's exposure of their secret armed organization, leading to the judicial prosecution
and dissolution of their group.

Egyptians recently witnessed the terrorism of the Muslim Brotherhood and its betrayal
following the events of 25 January 2011 in Tahrir Square, Rabaa, Nahda Square, and Ittihadiya.
This included the storming of prisons, burning of police stations, looting of weapons, bombings
of facilities and churches, as well as massacres in Rafah, Port Said, and Kerdasa, and attacks on
security installations to pursue army and police personnel in Sinai and throughout the country.
One of their despicable acts of terrorism was the assassination of the Prosecutor General,
Hisham Barakat, in June 2015. This act was in retaliation for his referral of their leaders to trial
for their involvement in murders within the Rabaa and Nahda sit-ins, exploiting the victims, and
killing army and police personnel during the dispersal of these sit-ins.

Egyptians will not forget the Muslim Brotherhood's terrorist group and its affiliates igniting
chaos and inciting sectarian strife. They invaded the mosques of Fath, Noor, and Rabaa, turning
them into military bases armed against their opponents, killing dozens of innocent people and
exploiting them. They fueled strife against Sunnis, attacked Shiites with brutality on charges of
Shiite affiliation, and incited against Sufis, accusing them of innovation and polytheism. The
horrifying massacre at the Al-Rawda Mosque, where hundreds of worshippers were killed
during Friday prayers, stands as a stark example. They also fueled hatred against Christians
through incendiary rhetoric, accusing them of rejecting Brotherhood rule. This resulted in the
burning and bombing of dozens of churches, facilities, and Coptic homes and the loss of
hundreds of innocent lives.

The Egyptians endured the Muslim Brotherhood and its affiliates for twenty-nine months,
hoping they would change, but it proved futile as they persisted in their deviation. During that
time, they overshadowed the military council in its administration for seventeen months, which
took over on 11 February 2011. They performed acts of terrorism, used violence, and instigated
conflicts that led to societal divisions, prompting some to migrate in search of safety. They also
undermined the armed forces and civilian police. Finally, they managed to seize power on 30
June 2012 and continued their terrorism, violence, and instigation of conflicts to empower their
terrorist group over the state apparatus. They even granted Egyptian nationality to their
mercenaries to establish a parallel army, undermining Egyptian identity.

At this point, the people, having endured the looting, destruction, bloodshed, and divisions,
realized that the Muslim Brotherhood's only goal was to fuel their ambitions and that religion
was only used to support their political agenda.

The Muslim Brotherhood terrorist group and its supporters have done nothing for religion
except diminish its rights and the rights of its people. They have issued fatwas on child
marriage, discriminated against women and non-Muslims, and used religious symbolism such as
beards and the niqab to gain power. They have misled young people and wasted their lives or
their educational or professional future by recruiting them into suicide operations, thuggery,
protests, demonstrations, and the manufacture and spread of rumors, all under the pretext of
protecting religion. The people have also become convinced that their actual project is to seize
power for the sake of power, under their terrorist slogan: "Either we rule you, or we will kill
you," to restore Egypt as a state of the caliphate they dream of controlling the world.

After the betrayal of the Muslim Brotherhood and its affiliates to religion and the homeland,
the great Egyptian personality, with its rich history, civilization, culture, and religious tolerance,
rose. The Egyptians initiated the largest peaceful popular revolution in their long history on 30
June 2013. Over 30 million Egyptians, supported by their veritable national army, called for the
return of their country from the kidnappers. They achieved this peacefully, gracefully, and
tranquilly on 3 July 2013. However, this came at the expense of targeting the innocent sons of
the army and police by the secret armed organization of the terrorist Muslim Brotherhood and
its rogue elements.

Relying on its strong judiciary, the Egyptian people, with the help of God, protected themselves
from the terrorism of the Muslim Brotherhood. Some honorable citizens filed lawsuit No. 2315
of 2013 before the Urgent Matters Court in Cairo, supported by evidence of the Brotherhood's
betrayal and external funding, using Islam as a cover to impose its control on society. They
demanded a ban on its activities. The historic judicial ruling, documented in its reasoning, was
issued on 23 September 2013, banning the activities of the Muslim Brotherhood organization in
the Arab Republic of Egypt and freezing all its funds. Some honorable citizens then filed lawsuit
No. 3343 of 2013 before the Urgent Matters Court in Cairo, supported by the bloody history of
the banned Muslim Brotherhood. They demanded the designation of the group as a terrorist
organization. With documented reasoning, the judicial ruling was issued on 24 February 2014,
considering the banned Muslim Brotherhood organization a terrorist organization. Following
this, Prime Minister's Decision No. 579 was issued on 8 April 2014 to implement this judgment,
specifying: "Imposing the penalties prescribed by law for the crime of terrorism on anyone who
participates in the activities of the group or organization, or promotes it by word or writing or in
any other way, and anyone who finances its activities."

The responsibility of the people towards themselves began—after they regained their hijacked
rule and fortified themselves with the law from its criminals and terrorists—to protect the gains
of their revolution that they paid for dearly with the blood of their martyrs from the army,
police, and civilians, and their wounded; in addition to the destruction and devastation that
affected most of its facilities, institutions, and capabilities.

It was incumbent upon the people—urgently and with an ongoing system—to recover from the
disease that afflicted their identity under the rule of the Muslim Brotherhood terrorist group
and its supporters and to gain immunity against its destructive ideas by doing the following:

1. Correcting religious discourse by prohibiting its exploitation for personal gain,

emphasizing the values of humility and tolerance, and observing the manner of dialogue
with others.

2. Unity of the Egyptian personality in a single national fabric without sectarianism,

ethnicity, or national fanaticism.

3. Strengthening Egyptian identity to confront the intellectual extremism of religious

organizations and currents.
4. Spreading the correct awareness to confront the malicious falsification of chaos and
terrorism.

5. Supporting the armed forces, the shield of security for the homeland and its people, and
the civil police, the security support for citizens and their interests.
 Chapter 5
Digital Media Literacy
Digital Media Literacy

Practical Applications

The tremendous advancements in communication and media technology and the resulting
digital media have constituted significant challenges for the world. The world has become
interconnected, with its East, West, North, and South opening to each other. The boundaries
have fallen in the face of a virtual world where news, information, and opinions are shared
through multiple applications on the internet. Digital media is no longer tied to the policies of
states and governments; instead, it is created by individuals, groups, and media institutions.
There is no longer a single thought or opinion; all ideas and views are presented. Auditory and
visual influences have multiplied, with sound, images, videos, music, and artistic compositions
creating a dazzling imaginary world for those interacting. It facilitates the acquisition of
knowledge and information, and this virtual world encompasses all contradictions and crosses
several different cultural, political, and social contexts. There have always been those who use
the mechanisms of digital media to advance humanity and spread positive and constructive
human knowledge and experiences and those who use these mechanisms to achieve
destructive and malicious goals that affect the security and safety of societies and states.

Therefore, countries worldwide have turned to individuals primarily to develop their skills in
interacting with digital media to achieve the greatest benefit from modern digital media
technologies. Through their awareness and understanding, individuals become the first line of
defense against any media content that affects their human, national, and global security,
avoiding strife, countering rumors and fourth-generation warfare, and adhering to their
homelands and belonging to them.

Hence, many international organizations and governments have called for teaching media
literacy courses to students at different educational levels.

First: The concept of media literacy:

Media literacy is the development of awareness of the impact of media on the individual and
society and the ability to analyze and criticize media messages and to enjoy their content. Art
Silver Blatt defines it as "awareness of the impact of media on the individual and society,
understanding the mass communication process, and developing strategies that enable us to
analyze and discuss media messages, and develop aesthetic enjoyment, understanding, and
appreciation for media content."

Others define media literacy as a means of understanding the underlying purposes of the media
content that individuals are exposed to. Justin Lewis and Sut Jhally define it as "understanding
the cultural, economic, political, and technological factors that influence the production,
distribution, and creation of media."

Some researchers believe that media literacy develops the ability to embody our self-image in
front of others. W. James Potter pointed out this in his book Media Literacy, considering that
media literacy is "the perspective through which we expose ourselves to media, in order to
interpret the meanings of the messages we are exposed to build knowledge using tools and raw
materials. Our skills are like these tools; the raw materials are the information you get from the
media."

In 2007, McDermott defined media literacy as the ability to receive critically and interact
consciously and purposefully. He said it was "the ability to read, analyze, evaluate and produce
communication. Media awareness is not limited to the reception and criticism aspects, but it
must go beyond conscious and purposeful participation in producing media content."

A- Skills acquired from media literacy:

Media literacy skills are lifelong skills that must be constantly developed and updated to keep
up with the rapid changes in the world of communication and information. Media literacy is a
right for every citizen, linked to their right to freedom of expression and access to information.
It is, therefore, a fundamental right in democratic societies.

There are several skills that an individual acquires through media literacy, including:

1. Consciously reviewing media content and messages and understanding the perspectives
they carry.

2. Understanding how and why certain content is produced and its purpose.

3. Applying a critical and analytical approach to media messages.

4. Using the media to transmit ideas, information, and opinions freely, responsibly, and
credibly.

5. Rejecting media materials that conflict with their principles, culture, and ethics.

6. Recognizing the political biases behind some media content and understanding their
potential motives.

7. Individuals' awareness and anticipation of the results from their participation in social
media networks and how they can be fruitful and constructive for society and the state
or destructive to the security and safety of society internally and externally.

Applications:
Work groups are formed to discuss the following topics and record and discuss the results
together.

How do we obtain news and information in our daily lives? How do you make sure that
the news and information are true? What websites do you interact with?
B – Objectives of Media Literacy

The goal of media literacy education is to shape students’ behavior, knowledge, and vision
through acquiring skills to interact critically with media. The main objectives include:

1. Understanding the role of media in democracy:

o Ensure easy access to media outlets.

o Comprehend democratic concepts such as freedom of expression, access to

information, and basic rights.

2. Understanding media content:

o Analyze media stereotypes, which often favor certain groups over others.

o Understand the values and messages embedded in media content.

3. Critical evaluation of media and information sources:

o Examine and compare information from multiple sources to assess reliability,

accuracy, and timeliness.

o Develop critical and analytical thinking for news or entertainment content, using
criteria such as clarity, accuracy, bias, effectiveness, and relevance.

4. Applying new and traditional forms of media:

o Understand and use digital technologies, communication tools, and networks

effectively.

o Compare and use multiple traditional media, such as print, radio, and television.

5. Identifying social and cultural context:

o Analyze media content according to its social and cultural background.

o Understand how rules and expectations are manipulated to produce specific

effects.

6. Encouraging proactive media literacy:

o Apply media literacy approaches various media messages.

o Promote creativity, production, and constructive interaction with media.

Application Exercise:

• Prepare a personal report documenting your daily interaction with media:

o Number of hours spent on each medium

 o Sources of information

o Analysis of differences in content and presentation across outlets

C – Curriculums for Evaluating Media Content and Sources

Media literacy requires analytical and critical approaches to ensure content credibility,
objectivity, and reliability.

A) Analytical Thinking: Concepts and Key Skills

• Definition: Breaking down material into components to understand relationships and

organize data.

• Purpose: Enables individuals to examine facts, ideas, solutions, and situations carefully,
allowing classification, comparison, and informed judgments.

Analytical Steps for Media Content:

1. Present media content, noting source, outlet, scope, and specialization.

2. Identify key parts conveying messages and their relationships.

3. Observe language, images, and signs used.

4. Consider chronological, spatial, and cultural contexts.

5. Compare with similar content or parts.

6. Classify components for clarity.

7. Establish objective evaluation criteria (reliability, clarity, transparency).

8. Infer implicit meanings and purposes.

9. Compare with news from similar events.

10. Present alternative possibilities.

11. Draw overall conclusions.

Application Exercise:

• Select a media excerpt (news article, YouTube video, etc.)

• Analyze using audience, purpose, author, techniques, context, and news elements (who,
what, where, target audience, media used)

B) Critical Thinking: Concepts and Key Skills

 • Definition: Evaluating beliefs and proposals using evidence, logic, and reasoning rather
than following others blindly.

• Skills (Watson & Glaser):

1. Recognizing Assumptions – distinguish fact from opinion.

2. Interpretation – identify problems and evaluate designs/results.

3. Inference – draw conclusions from facts or assumptions.

4. Evaluating Arguments – judge the strength of arguments and sources.

Types of Critical Thinking:

• Deductive Thinking: Derive specific conclusions from valid premises.

• Inductive Thinking: Generalize from part to whole.

• Evaluative Thinking: Assess topics based on substantial criteria (good/bad,

successful/unsuccessful).

Expected Skills (UNESCO “Basic Information and Media Literacy”):

1. Compare incoming information from multiple sources for reliability, accuracy, and bias.

2. Use criteria like clarity, effectiveness, and factual appropriateness.

3. Recognize preconceptions, deception, and manipulation.

4. Identify social, cultural, or racial contexts affecting interpretation.

5. Understand technology and media interactions.

6. Compare new knowledge with prior knowledge.

7. Assess accuracy by questioning sources and methods.

8. Use strategies to interpret media (summarizing, deconstructing, decoding biases).

Application Exercise:

• Discuss a news story in groups and apply critical thinking to assess credibility and
reliability.

Second: Digital Media – Concept, Characteristics, Advantages, and Responsibilities

A) Concept of Digital Media

• Digital media refers to media that uses electronic technologies to transmit, store, and
interact with content.
 • It enables interaction between users and between users and information sources.

• Key aspects include non-synchronicity, rapid dissemination, and global accessibility,

which are not present in traditional media (newspapers, radio, television).

• The rise of the Internet, computers, and smartphones led to platforms like Facebook,
YouTube, Instagram, Twitter, blogs, and news websites.

• Digital media includes citizen journalism, institutional media, and electronic marketing.

• Any individual or institution can publish and interact with news or information without
geographical or temporal restrictions using writing, photos, sound, images, and video.

B) Characteristics of Digital Media

1. Interactivity:

o Multidirectional communication allows users to respond, critique, modify, or

create content.

o Audiences can become content producers themselves.

2. Universality:

o Global communication surpasses time, place, and control barriers.

o Encourages cultural, economic, and social globalization.

3. Globality:

o Facilitates worldwide communication among people with similar beliefs or

interests.

4. Multiple Communication Platforms:

o Integrates different media types into one system, offering multiple display,
storage, and retrieval options.

5. Fragmentation of the Audience:

o Audiences can be segmented by age, religion, specialization, or interests.

6. A synchronicity:

o Media messages can be sent and received at different times, allowing flexible
access.

7. Reaching Specific Audience Groups:

o Tools are available for children, the elderly, disabled, or visually impaired users.
 8. Freedom of Opinion and Expression:

o Provides platforms for open dialogue among supporters, opponents, and

neutrals without censorship.

C) Advantages and Benefits of Digital Media

1. Provides multiple communication channels for individuals, institutions, and collective

interaction.

2. Balances information presentation between supporters and opponents, with access to

multiple sources.

3. Offers abundant information for scientific, educational, and human development.

4. Encourages conscious dialogue, conflict resolution, and democratic discussion.

5. Preserves and spread’s cultural identity across borders.

6. Enables monitoring and accountability of government and institutions.

7. Opens unlimited economic opportunities and e-markets, fostering competition and

prosperity.

8. Promotes values of democracy, tolerance, human rights, loyalty, and belonging.

9. Supports freedom of expression and global communication.

10. Enhance transparency, discipline, objectivity, and speed in media reporting.

11. Provides policymakers with public opinion trends to guide decisions.

Application Exercises:

• Imagine life without media: analyze how people receive news, make decisions, and what
would be missed most.

• Compare a social media post expressing an opinion with an electronic news article to
analyze differences in reliability and presentation.

D) Digital Media Between Freedom of Expression and Social Responsibility

• Freedom of Opinion and Expression:

o A fundamental human right, protected by international treaties and national

constitutions.

o Individuals can express opinions, beliefs, and ideas via media, artistic works, or
advertisements.
 • Limits to Rights:

o Rights are not absolute; exceeding them can infringe on others’ rights, create
chaos, or harm social and national interests.

• Social Responsibility Theory:

o Users should respect freedom of expression while maintaining credibility,

transparency, and ethics.

o Awareness of boundaries prevents cybercrimes like defamation, rumor-

spreading, human trafficking, and leaking sensitive information.

1. The Right to Freedom of Expression and Its Limits

• Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), Article 19:

Every person has the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including seeking,
receiving, and sharing information through any media without restriction.

• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), Article 19:

Restrictions on freedom of expression are permissible only by law and must serve one
of the following purposes:

1. Respect for individuals’ rights and reputations

2. Protection of national security and public order

3. Protection of public morals

4. Protection of public health

• Violation risks:

1. Conscious or unconscious violations, especially in digital media, can threaten

states, societies, and ethics.

2. Awareness of social responsibility is essential to prevent misuse.

2. Social Responsibility in Media

• Concept:

o Freedom of expression is both a right and a responsibility.

o Media outlets must adhere to professional standards to serve society ethically

and legally.

• Historical Background:
 o Emerged after World War II to counter partisan journalism (“black era of
journalism”).

o The 1947 U.S. report, A Free and Responsible Press, laid the foundation for
modern social responsibility theory.

• Definition (McQuaid, Mass Communication):

o Media should apply ethical principles to serve democracy and present truthful
information to society.

• Modern Needs:

o Documented procedures and legal frameworks: Protect human rights,

freedoms, and societal security.

o Community dialogue: Define cultural and ethical standards for digital media use
(Eastern media charter).

• Audience Responsibility:

o In digital media, social responsibility applies not only to institutions but also to
every individual interacting on media platforms.

Applications:

• Create ethical commitments and a media code of honor for social media interaction,
based on values, ethics, and cultural beliefs.

3. Challenges of Digital Media

• Digital media offers access to global knowledge but also brings risks:

o Electronic crimes

o Fourth-generation warfare

o Psychological warfare and propaganda

o Rumors eroding trust in the state

A) Electronic Crimes

Definition:

Acts causing harm to individuals, groups, or institutions for financial or political gain via digital
media, often without physical presence.
Common Electronic Crimes:

1. Insult, Defamation, and Slander

o Insult: Offending someone’s honor without attributing a specific act.

o Defamation: Falsely attributing an act to harm reputation.

o Slander: Expressions harming dignity of individuals or institutions.

o Consequences: Legal accountability, psychological and moral harm.

2. Violating Personal Data and Information

o Personal data on social media (name, email, photos, etc.) can be misused.

o Risks include identity theft, fraud, impersonation, and misuse of data for
marketing or espionage.

3. Drug Trafficking Online

o Traffickers use anonymous social media accounts and private emails.

o Targets youth with attractive ads and encrypted networks.

o Dark Web tools, originally for military security, are exploited by gangs.

4. Human Trafficking

o Exploits vulnerable people globally using the internet.

o Violates basic human rights; one of the top three criminal enterprises worldwide.

o Conducted by organized international networks using digital platforms for

recruitment and transport.

1. Human Trafficking in the Digital Age

• Definition (Amnesty International):

Human trafficking violates fundamental human rights, including physical and mental
integrity, liberty, personal security, freedom from slavery, movement, health, privacy,
housing, and security.

Types of Human Trafficking Crimes:

1. Unethical Practices / Exploitation of Women:

o Women are deceived through social media into believing they will get jobs
abroad, only to be forced into prostitution or sex tourism.
 o ISIS and other groups target Muslim women in Europe, promising safety and
respect but exploiting them physically.

o Poverty and ignorance can lead families to allow daughters to travel under false
pretexts for financial gain.

2. Involvement of Children in Armed Conflicts:

o Children are kidnapped and used in conflicts by terrorist groups.

o UNICEF estimates ~300,000 children under 12 are exploited in global conflict

zones.

o Children may be forced to act in military roles, committing crimes against

humanity.

3. Illegal Migration:

o Exploits poverty and unemployment.

o Young people are lured into unsafe migration, often ending up in slavery-like
conditions, paying large sums to traffickers.

4. Organ Trafficking:

o Traffickers exploit poor individuals or abduct children to sell organs.

o Victims are often forced into surgeries, sometimes resulting in death.

o Targets mainly low-income populations in developing countries.

• Religious and International Action:

o All Abrahamic faiths reject human trafficking.

o Al-Azhar, the Vatican, and other religious representatives signed an international

agreement in 2014 to combat trafficking, especially in the Middle East.

o Awareness campaigns and training by educational, religious, and civil society

institutions are essential.

Applications:

• Write about data or identity theft crime and your protective measures.

• Create a factual or fictional story about a human trafficking victim.

2. Fourth-Generation Warfare (4GW)

• Definition:

o Developed by the US Army, 4GW is asymmetric warfare using economic,

political, media, and cultural tools rather than traditional military combat.

o Goal: Undermine opponents’ strategies and morale indirectly.

• History & Evolution:

o Concept emerged in the late 1980s; used post-9/11 and Iraq war (2003).

o 4GW targets regular state forces and civilian populations using irregular forces
like terrorist groups.

o Digital media amplifies 4GW, allowing extremist groups to spread sedition and
rumors widely.

• Comparison with Previous Warfare Generations:

Generation Characteristics Example

First Traditional armies vs. armies Battlefield wars

Second State vs. non-state actors Guerrilla warfare

US Iraq war (weapons of mass

Third Preemptive, preventive attacks
destruction)

Psychological, media, political

Fourth 9/11, Al-Qaeda campaigns
manipulation

State-society gap exploitation, mainly Modern digital influence

Fifth
non-military campaigns

• Egyptian Presidential Awareness (Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, 2019):

o Digital media and personal data segmentation can incite social discord.

o Citizens must not undermine state institutions; legal channels exist for
grievances.

o Social cohesion and trust in political and security institutions are essential to
resist 4GW.
3. Psychological Warfare

• Definition:

o Use of moral and psychological tactics to shape perceptions, judgments, and

emotions.

o Can be applied positively (boost morale, strengthen cohesion) or negatively

(manipulate, demoralize, divide).

• Objectives:

o Undermine enemy morale

o Inflating fear and uncertainty

o Manipulate public opinion and beliefs

o Target vulnerable populations (e.g., unemployed, poorly educated)

• Mechanisms:

o Political propaganda

o Rumors

o Jokes and mockery

o Invasion and manipulation of cultural identity

• Digital Media Impact:

o Accelerates the spread of propaganda and false information.

o Users may unknowingly participate by sharing misleading content.

o Threatens social stability, national security, political participation, and public

trust.

• Expert Insight (Joseph Nye):

o Psychological warfare = “shaping perceptions and getting what you want

through attraction rather than coercion.”

o Modern warfare integrates digital media to reach specific audiences effectively.

1. Political Propaganda

• Definition:
 o Propaganda is the art of persuasion, aiming to influence thoughts, feelings, and
behavior.

o Leonard Dob: “An organized attempt by one or more persons to control the
attitudes and actions of individuals and groups through suggestion.”

• Mechanisms:

o Uses auditory and visual stimuli: images, videos, music, songs, and comments.

o Digital media allows rapid spread, repetition, and easy recall of content.

o Malicious propaganda hides its sources, exaggerates or downplays facts, uses

deception, distortion, and selective information.

• Malicious vs. Positive Propaganda:

o Malicious propaganda: Causes social division, shows discord, undermines

governments, and is often sponsored by dissident groups or foreign actors.

o Positive propaganda: Transparent and source-informed, aims to instill beneficial

behaviors or promote positive social outcomes.

• Common Tactics Observed in Digital Media:

o Claiming or exaggerating government corruption while ignoring positive actions.

o Urging protests for fabricated reasons.

o Using slogans and hashtags to incite violence or revolution.

o Highlighting societal problems to create frustration or rebellion.

o Targeting specific professions to exaggerate neglect of rights.

o Spreading false alarms (e.g., epidemics, rising prices) to create panic.

o Smearing officials and doubting government procedures.

o Promoting anti-government figures while belittling supporters.

o Questioning constitutional constants, legal procedures, and security institutions.

Applications:

• Compare news coverage of a topic on two channels (e.g., Al Jazeera vs. CNN).

• Analyze differences in perspective, sources, visual support, and framing.

2. Rumors

• Definition:

o Allport & Postman: “Any qualitative issues or statements that are believable and
transmitted person to person without criteria for truth.”

o Dictionary of Psychology: “Vague or inaccurate reports circulated mainly

through spoken words, often during crises, concerning individuals or events.”

• Modern Context:

o Social media allows rumors to spread widely and rapidly without a clear source.

o No longer limited to personal communication; digital platforms amplify their

reach.

• Effects:

o Positive: Foster solidarity, cohesion, or morale (e.g., exaggerating military feats

or scientific achievements).

o Negative: Cause discord, violence, panic, or protests based on false information.

• Characteristics of Rumors:

o Exaggeration, sensationalism, distortion.

o Mix of false information with elements of truth.

o False commentary accompanying real events.

o Easy to spread, difficult to debunk.

o Source is hard to trace.

o Tailored to the audience’s culture, ideology, fears, and desires.

o Obscurity and difficulty of verification.

o Addresses issues that concern or alarm the public.

o Can be manufactured by intelligence agencies, anti-state groups, or interest

groups for political, financial, or disruptive purposes.

1. Combating Rumors

For Individuals:

• Verify information using reliable sources online.

 • Check comments and evidence on social media (photos, videos, eyewitness reports).

• Evaluate the credibility of sources and their motives.

• Avoid reposting unverified rumors.

For Governments:

• Maintain transparency and honesty in communication.

• Establish a media apparatus in political institutions to monitor and respond.

• Refute rumors via official channels.

• Use security apparatuses to track and respond to rumors.

• Introduce media literacy education in schools and train employees on social media
usage.

Examples of Rumors:

• Local: Fake stories of human trafficking, organ theft, or demolition of places of worship
to incite fear or sectarian strife.

• International: Exaggerated claims of human rights abuses or violent protests to provoke

foreign opinion against a state.

Applications:

• Reflect on a rumor you believed and shared, then discovered false. Analyze its source,
purpose, and impact.

• Recall a harmful rumor you experienced.

2. Jokes and Satire

Definition & Types:

• Jokes: Can critique society, relieve stress, or mock corruption.

• Satire: Use of humor, irony, or exaggeration to expose and criticize vices or societal
flaws.

• Positive: Critiques local issues, relieve stress, helps gauge public opinion.

• Dangerous/Negative: Used by hostile actors to undermine state institutions, create

mistrust, and promote discord.

Impacts on Society:
 1. Loss of Trust: Mocked figures lose public confidence and credibility.

2. Non-belonging: Exaggerated satire discourages civic participation.

3. Discrimination: Mockery may favor one group over another, reinforcing bias.

4. Frivolity: Undermines seriousness, reduces respect for events or crises.

5. Exaggeration/Hyperbole: Distorts perception, normalizes exaggeration in language.

Ways to Deal with Satire/Jokes:

• Respect prominent figures and institutions.

• Recognize biased sources promoting negative perceptions.

• Avoid reposting offensive jokes.

• Maintain ethical humor and avoid ridicule that harms society.

• Distinguish between entertainment and exploitation of humor.

Applications:

• Give examples of jokes that damaged trust in someone or an institution.

• Describe a satirical depiction of a public figure leading to false negative perceptions.

• Discuss a social issue negatively impacted by jokes or satire.

3. Terrorism and Extremist Groups

Evolution:

• Traditional media era: Terrorist organizations were local, propaganda limited.

• Digital media era: Groups like ISIS and Al-Qaeda became international, spreading
ideology online and recruiting globally.

Methods & Tools:

• Social media platforms (Facebook, Twitter, Telegram, YouTube).

• Sharing videos of killings, recruitment, propaganda, and bomb-making tutorials.

• Cyber terrorism attacks information networks.

• Using charity campaigns for fundraising.

Goals of Terrorism:
 • Create fear and panic among citizens.

• Undermine state authority and security forces.

• Recruit young people into extremist groups.

• Incite sectarian strife and civil conflict.

• Damage economy and national reputation.

Examples:

• ISIS misattributed attacks in Iraq to inflame sectarian tensions.

• Recruitment of women in Europe to join the so-called “digital caliphate.”

Applications:

• Identify goals, impacts, and countermeasures of terrorism.

• Reflect on development, work, and preserving lives as a peaceful jihad.

4. International Monitoring & Analysis of Social Media

Purpose:

• Governments analyze social media to track terrorism, public opinion, and threats.

• Example: US Department of Defense and RAND Corporation research on social media

analysis for national security.

Uses:

• Identify adversary networks and support bases.

• Gather demographic and behavioral information.

• Monitor extremists and prevent attacks.

• Influence adversary decisions while protecting own operations.

Risks:

• Military personnel posting on social media can inadvertently expose sensitive

information.

• Adversaries exploit social media for intelligence gathering.

• Malicious actors spread misinformation and panic via social platforms.

Training & Precautions:

• Educate users on careful social media use.

• Analyze content critically to detect exaggeration or falsehoods.

• Uphold media literacy and national security awareness.

Applications for Information Awareness

Key Tasks for Individuals:

1. Identify risky news or posts: Recognize the types of personal or public information that
could be harmful if analyzed and combined by hostile groups or foreign entities.

2. Analyze social media content: Monitor news and posts that may reveal sensitive
information about institutions, both domestic and foreign, which could threaten
national security.

Guiding Principles:

• Word = Responsibility: Be careful with what you say or post.

• News = Credibility: Verify sources before sharing.

• Information = Reliability: Ensure the accuracy of facts.

• Nation = Trust: Protect national interests and security.

Citizens should understand that safeguarding these principles is crucial to:

• Countering information wars, rumors, and psychological operations.

• Preventing manipulation or disorientation of public opinion.

• Protecting the nation, society, and individual dignity.

Practical Guidelines for Responsible Interaction:

• Respect the rights and freedoms of others while exercising your own.

• Uphold social responsibility in all interactions on new media.

• Set and follow ethical standards for sharing news, images, and information online.

• Expose fallacies, crimes, or hidden motives of those spreading misinformation.

 • Protect personal and professional data on social media.

• Be cautious of unknown or suspicious accounts promoting extremism, terrorism, or

psychological manipulation.

• Apply analytical and critical thinking before interacting with or reposting information.

• Preserve and promote cultural identity and soft power, highlighting values like
tolerance, love, and cross-cultural respect.

Awareness of Global Context:

• The world is not permanently peaceful; wars exist in multiple forms (armed, unarmed,
digital).

• Internal targeting of a state by its citizens can lead to collapse or disintegration.

• Citizens must stand united, respond intelligently to fourth generation and other types of
warfare, and participate actively in building and defending the nation.

Conclusion:

Protecting information, verifying sources, and acting responsibly online are essential civic
duties. Awareness, critical thinking, and cultural responsibility form the foundation for national
security, social stability, and human dignity.
 Chapter 6
Environmental Issues

Prof ATTIA MAHMOUD MOHAMED AL-TANTAWI1 and Dr MAHER HAMED SAADAWI

SULEIMAN2

The term "environment" is one of those terms whose meaning is associated with the pattern of
the relationship between it and the extent of its use. Other agricultural, industrial, social, cultural,
and political environments exist. One definition describes it as the natural system that makes up
Earth, with humans being the main players in this system. Scientists use the term "environment"
to refer to the external factors in which living organisms exist. The United Nations conference
held in Stockholm in June 1972 briefly defined the environment as everything surrounding
humans. It can also be described as a set of interconnected systems, complex to the extent that it
affects and determines our survival in this world and which we regularly interact with (Al-Hamd
and Sabareeni, 1979).

The environment can be defined as a complex network of interactions occurring among all
components of the natural environment, including living organisms (referred to as the biosphere,
including humans, animals, plants, etc.) and non-living elements (such as terrain, climate, water,
air, soil, etc.). This concept includes the human-created environment that forms the living
framework. It encompasses all elements of the environment, its components, and the systematic
relationships between them, known as the environmental compound. This concept also includes
environmental problems related to the deterioration of the Earth's biosphere due to human
activities that disrupt the natural balance (Belfkih, 1991).

From a scientific perspective, the environment is defined as the surroundings of humans,

encompassing all material and non-material aspects, both human and non-human. The
environment refers to everything outside humans and their entities, including all surrounding
entities. In its simplest definition, the environment is where humans conduct various activities,
encompassing all living organisms, such as animals and plants, that humans coexist with and
benefit from.

Researchers categorise the environment into two main types (Yuze et al., 2022):

1. Natural Environment: This includes soil, various climate elements such as temperature,
pressure, winds, rains, and different living organisms, in addition to freshwater and saline
water resources (Abdel-Hamid, 2003). These aspects exist independently of human
influence. The natural environment encompasses all phenomena or natural components,
both living and non-living, surrounding humans, represented by Earth's surface
components such as mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys, and rocks.

1
Professor of Physical Geography, Department of Geography and Geographic Information Systems, School of
African Studies, Cairo University.
 1. Constructed Environment: This includes the physical infrastructure, social systems,
and institutions built by humans. The constructed environment or human environment
can be examined through how societies organise their lives, altering the natural
environment to serve human needs. This encompasses land use for agriculture, residential
areas, exploration of natural resources, industrial zones, commercial centres, roads, etc.
(Christopher et al., 2004).

The natural and constructed environment is an integrated whole that includes the Earth's
framework and its interaction with other cosmic components. The contents of this framework are
in constant interaction, influencing and being influenced. Humans are environment components,
interacting with its elements and their peers on Earth. This requires a wise approach from
humans to deal gently with the environment and to utilise it without causing damage or
destruction (Matthew and Nicholas, 2022). According to the recommendations of the 1972
Stockholm Conference, the environment has been classified into three types (Vahid et al.,
2022):

• Natural Environment: Comprises the interconnected systems of the atmospheric,

hydrospheric, lithospheric, and biospheric envelopes, representing resources available for
humans to obtain the essentials of life, such as food, clothing, medicine, and shelter.
• Biological Environment: Encompasses humans as individuals and within their families
and communities, along with living organisms in the biosphere. The biological
environment is considered part of the natural environment (UNEP, 2010).
• Social Environment: Refers to the framework of relationships that defines human
interactions with others. It is the basis for organising any group, whether among its
members in a specific environment or between different or similar groups in distant
environments. The patterns of these relationships form what is known as social systems.
Throughout their long history, humans have created a civilised environment to support
their lives, populated the Earth and penetrated the atmosphere to conquer space (Makhlol
and Ghanem, 2009).

The environment suffers from several problems affecting humans and their various activities. We
have put them under environmental issues. This presentation aims to raise environmental
awareness and the importance of environmental conservation to benefit humans and protect the
natural environment at all governmental, societal, and individual levels. The topic of
environmental issues has been presented on the following pages through ten points:

• The concept of environmental system and the ecosystem

• Studying the components of ecosystems
• Recognising the types and elements of ecosystems
• Studying the relationship between humans and the environment
• Pollution problems of various types
• Radiation pollution
• Studying climate change
• Desertification
• Sustainable development
The detailed review of these points is as follows:

First: The Concept of the Environmental System and Ecosystem

The environmental system refers to an area of land (dry or water) and the living organisms
within it, interacting with each other and engaging in exchanges between living and non-living
components. Examples of environmental systems include forests, rivers, lakes, and seas. This
definition considers all living organisms forming the environmental community (primitive,
unicellular, and multicellular) and all non-living elements of the environment (Grayba, 2022).
The environmental system is a diversity of different living organisms (communities) of plants
and animals that live and interact with each other in a specific location, such as forests or lakes.
The environmental system can be large or small depending on the size of the living organism
present, such as bacteria (where the system space is small). Generally, it denotes the dynamic
interaction of all parts of the environment, specifically focusing on material exchange between
living and non-living components. The environmental habitat represents the unit of the
environmental system, acting as a shelter or dwelling for living organisms (Matthew and
Nicholas, 2022).

The term "ecosystem" is a combination of the words "ecological" and "system." Ecology is the
study of living organisms in their natural habitats. It was first defined by the German zoologist
Ernst Haeckel in 1869 as the study of the relationship of living things to their external
environment. This relationship encompasses all conditions of survival and may involve other
creatures. Ecology focuses on the interactions between the organic and inorganic elements of the
environment. The term "ecosystem" provides a comprehensive framework for viewing the
environment and society as a single unit. Humans are active participants in the ecosystem, just
like plants and animals. Historically, humans have been more of a complement to the ecosystem
than a controller (Hasan, 1999). Eugene P. Odum, an American ecologist, emphasised the
importance of the term "ecosystem" in testing the relationship between humans and the
environment. Communities depend on the environment for food and fuel, and using these
resources leads to waste accumulation, resulting in numerous environmental problems that
weaken the natural ecosystem (Donald, 1988).

Second: Components of Ecosystems

Ecosystems exist everywhere, and examples of them include lakes, forests, and oceans. Each
represents an independent environmental system, and its components live together in perfect
balance. The sum of these separate systems forms planet Earth, and each has its own separate or
sometimes overlapping components with other systems. It is not necessarily alive or non-living,
as the matter is largely relative and complex. For example, the sea is an extensive environmental
system essentially composed of water (non-living), which contains the remaining living
components (fish, marine plants, etc.) and non-living (soil). The soil here is a shared and
overlapping component between the sea and land systems, as soil is a significant part of both
systems (Hemdan, 1993).
Ecosystems consist of all living organisms, including animals, plants, and microscopic organisms
(Al-Bergawi, 2013). These organisms are categorised into producers, which require water,
carbon dioxide, minerals, and a source of energy to survive. Consumers, on the other hand,
utilise organic materials produced by autotrophic organisms either directly or indirectly.
Consumers can be herbivores or carnivores. Autotrophic organisms like green plants can build
their food from simple inorganic materials through photosynthesis. These organisms are
considered the primary source of all other living beings. They consume significant amounts of
carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and release oxygen into the air (Knapp, 1992).

Non-autotrophic organisms, on the other hand, cannot produce food. They include consumers
and decomposers. Herbivores, such as insects feeding on grass, are consumer organisms that rely
on what plants produce and transform it into different materials in their bodies to build their
tissues and bodies. Such organisms are called "primary consumers" because they directly feed on
plants. Animals that feed on these insects are also considered consumer organisms but are called
"secondary consumers" because they rely on the nutrients formed in the bodies of herbivores,
which, in turn, originated from plants. Decomposer organisms, on the other hand, rely on
breaking down the remains of plant and animal organisms, transforming them into simple
compounds that benefit plants. Examples include bacteria, fungi, and some dead organisms
(Abdelhamid, 2003).

Ecosystems consist of three interconnected envelopes: the Hydrosphere (water envelope), the
Atmosphere (air envelope), and the Lithosphere (rocky envelope). These are the fundamental
materials in the environment, including inorganic substances like carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen;
organic substances like proteins, carbohydrates, and fats; and climate elements such as heat,
humidity, wind, and light. These environments also include physical elements like gravity (Al-
Hamad and Sabbarini, 1979). The ecosystem contains living and non-living entities interacting
with each other and environmental conditions. This means that the elements of the environment
interact within a specific system referred to as an ecosystem (Hosawi, 1999).

Third: Types and elements of ecosystems

1. Aquatic environment systems, which are saltwater and freshwater environments. The
saltwater environment is divided into:
• Oceans, among Earth's oldest and largest ecosystems, contain many living organisms
affected in abundance and distribution by various factors, such as light, nutrients,
temperature, tides, and ocean currents (Carolyn, 2013).
• Intertidal Zone: Extending between the highest point reached by the water during high
tide and the lowest point during low tide, this zone is rich in oxygen (O2) and organic
matter. It is home to burrowing animals and has an exceptionally high marine
productivity (Knapp, 1992).
• Continental Shelf: The area between the shoreline and the continental slope, with a
maximum depth of only 180 meters. It hosts a variety of fish species, and its productivity
is relatively high.
• Abyssal Zone: Beyond the continental slope in deep waters, this zone could be more
productive as it lacks the necessary materials for photosynthesis (Hosawi, 1999).
As for freshwater ecosystems (Abdul Qadir, 2005):
• Ponds and Rivers: These flowing transport systems connect land to seas. Rivers carry
organic materials, providing a complex environment for most living organisms to ensure
their basic nutritional needs.
• Lakes and Pools: These are confined areas with clear land boundaries. Although they
have inflows and outflows, the water lacks continuous longitudinal flow. The organisms
in lakes are influenced by factors such as basin depth, topography, water quality,
temperature, and light (Al-Bergawy, 2013).
• Estuaries: These are ecosystems in river mouths and delta regions. Estuaries are
transitional zones where freshwater mixes with seawater, leading to a reduction in
salinity. This transitional nature gives estuaries unique characteristics, and the organisms
living there must adapt to changes in temperature, salinity, and suspended sediment
concentration (Knapp, 1992).

1. Terrestrial Ecosystems:

A) Tundra: Located in the treeless region at the polar zone's extreme north of the Earth's
surface, the tundra experiences a harsh and dry winter that prohibits tree growth. The area is
covered with snow, meaning "frozen desert." The tundra environment is relatively lifeless during
the dark, cold winter when plants are unavailable. Animals either hibernate under snow or ice or
migrate to more favourable climates. Tundra becomes suitable for plant and animal life during
the short summer, characterised by bright sunlight and warmth (Abdel Maqsoud, 1997).

B) Forests: These forests depend in their quality and distribution on climate and soil. Forest
environments are as follows:

• Coniferous Forests: These forests are found in the northernmost regions and are
characterised by evergreen plants. They are vital areas for plant life, adjacent to the
tundra region. Coniferous forests occupy parts of Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, and
Siberia between 50 and 60 degrees north latitudes. Due to the high productivity of these
forests, they exhibit diverse animal life but still experience significant seasonal changes
and wide population fluctuations, especially among mammals (Hosawi, 1999).
• Deciduous Forests: These forests are located in the temperate zones of the Northern
Hemisphere. Thanks to the temperate and humid climate, they are widespread in the
United States, Eastern Asia, and Central Europe. The diversity of plants and animals in
these forests is attributed to the mild and humid climate (Carolyn, 2013).
• Tropical Rainforests: These are the largest vegetative cover on Earth's surface,
appearing in South America (Amazon Basin), Africa (Congo Basin), the eastern Andes,
and parts of South Asia. The climatic conditions in this region, with high temperatures
and humidity, are suitable throughout the year for the growth of these forests. As a result,
the productivity of this ecosystem is high compared to other ecosystems. The diversity of
animals and plants is extremely high due to the diversity of these environments' ancient
nature and food sources (Hemdan, 1993).
• Mediterranean Forests: This region encompasses areas around the Mediterranean Sea,
Southern California, Central Chile, and Southern Australia. It is characterised by dry
conditions for most of the year, particularly in the summer, with moderate rainfall during
 the winter. Trees in these forests often have evergreen leaves, such as Aleppo pine,
Maritime pine, Lebanese cedar, Cupressus, and oak (Al-Hamd and Sabareeni, 1979).

C - Grasslands:

• Moderate Zone Grasslands: These grasslands are characterised by moderate rainfall

ranging from 250 to 750 mm per year. While this amount is higher than found in deserts,
it is insufficient to support the growth of trees and the formation of forests. This zone
includes prairies, the Great Plains in North America, the Asian steppes, African savannas,
and the Pampas in South America. These regions are known for abundant large
herbivores such as giraffes, wild horses, deer, and carnivorous predators (Hosawi, 1999).

Tropical Grasslands (Savannas): Tropical grasslands, known as savannas, serve as a

transitional environment between tropical forests and grasslands. A fluctuating rainfall pattern
characterises them, sometimes reaching up to 1250 mm annually. Savannas experience a long,
dry summer, which prevents the formation of forests. These regions are prominent in East
Africa, Australia, and South America.

Savannas are crucial as they represent important grazing areas globally. Grasses dominate the
vegetation, and key herbivores like deer, gazelles, wildebeests, giraffes, elephants, lions, and
cheetahs thrive in these ecosystems (Abdel Maqsoud, 1997).

Deserts represent arid ecosystems where the annual rainfall is less than 250 mm. They are
characterised by high rates of evaporation that exceed precipitation and high temperatures.
Deserts also experience significant temperature variations, daily and seasonally, with daytime
temperatures soaring during summer and dropping significantly at night. There are two main
types of desert: hot deserts, found in tropical and subtropical regions, and cold deserts, such as
the Great Basin Desert in the United States and the Gobi Desert in Asia. Inhabitants of deserts
are limited to areas with some plant life. Burrowing rodents, reptiles, insects, and spiders
dominate these environments. These animals have adapted to the extreme heat and aridity by
living underground during the day and emerging to forage at night. Some desert-dwelling species
have exceptional water conservation adaptations, and certain animals, like gazelles, have found
ways to thrive in these harsh conditions (Hemdan, 1993).

The ecosystems are classified based on the availability of their living and non-living
components into two main types:

1. Natural Ecosystem (Open System): This system contains all the primary components of
the environment, such as forests, swamps, and rivers.
2. Incomplete Ecosystem (Closed System): This system lacks one or more of the essential
components, such as great sea depths or closed caves. In this case, some areas are
unsuitable for producer organisms due to the absence of a sunlight source.
Fourth: The Relationship between Humans and the Environment

1. Human Impact on the Environment: Humans are the most significant and vital factor
in causing environmental changes and biological imbalances. Since their existence,
humans have interacted with the components of the environment. Over the decades and
years, their control over the environment has increased, especially with scientific and
technological advancements that have provided more opportunities for them to induce
changes, primarily driven by their increasing needs for food and clothing. Due to
intellectual and psychological evolution, humans hold a particular position as part of the
ecological system. They can control, deplete, or preserve the environment (Hamdan,
1993). However, when humans cut down forests, convert the land into farms, factories,
and residences, overgraze pastures with uncontrolled grazing, and resort to various types
of chemical fertilisers and pesticides, they disrupt the balance of ecological systems. This
disruption has repercussions on human life, as illustrated below:

• Forests: Forests constitute an ecosystem closely related to humans, covering

approximately 28% of the continents' area. Therefore, their deterioration or removal
seriously affects the ecosystem, especially in maintaining the necessary balance between
oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the air (Vahid et al., 2022).
• Grasslands: Poor utilisation of grasslands leads to the deterioration of natural vegetation,
accompanied by soil and climate degradation. If the deterioration continues, the soil
becomes exposed and prone to erosion (Barrow, 1991).
• Unbalanced Agricultural Systems and Agriculture: Humans have transformed natural
forests into agricultural land, replacing natural ecosystems with artificial systems. This
includes altering food chains and the interrelationships between organisms and unique
substances in ecosystems. Humans have adopted different relationships between crops
and their surrounding environment, using fertilisers and pesticides to achieve this goal.
The biggest mistake made by humans in understanding agricultural land use is the belief
that they can replace the complex natural relationships between environmental factors
and plants with artificial ones, thus contradicting the laws regulating nature. This has led
agricultural systems to be rapidly affected by pollution (Gary et al., 2005).

2- Impact of the Environment on Humans: Human activities in the environment have led to
adverse reactions, manifesting in harmful effects on plants, animals, humans, and the soil, as
follows (Yuze et al., 2022):

• Increase in Toxic Gases: The increase in toxic gases results in respiratory and ocular
diseases. Elevated concentrations of certain chemicals, such as organic amine vapours,
can cause certain types of cancer. Some gases, like nitrogen oxide, harm the nervous
system. Additionally, atomic radiation causes congenital deformities that can be inherited
if it does not lead to death.
• Presence of Dust and Fog: The presence of dust and fog leads to impaired visibility on
both roads and in the air. This, in turn, causes rust and corrosion on equipment and
buildings, affecting their expected lifespan and resulting in significant losses. Moreover,
 pollution by solid particles obstructs a significant portion of sunlight, increasing artificial
lighting.

3- Impact of the Environment on Animals: Fluoride compounds can cause problems such as
rickets in the bones of animals in areas where fluoride falls or is absorbed by green plants. Lead
salts from exhaust fumes can poison cattle, sheep, and horses. Sulfur dioxide is a contributor to
livestock deaths. Flying insects cannot live in polluted city air. You can also imagine the
inevitable fate of birds that depend on these insects for food. For example, a species of bird that
lived in the skies of London about 80 years ago became extinct because air pollution wiped out
the flying insects it fed on (Gary et al., 2005).

4- Impact of the Environment on Plants: Plants suffocate in impure air and quickly perish. Air
pollution with dust, fog, and smoke reduces the amount of sunlight reaching the earth, affecting
the growth of plants and the maturation of crops. This also diminishes the efficiency of the
photosynthesis process. The fall of flowers in some fruit varieties like oranges, as well as in most
evergreen trees, and the shedding of leaves and shrubs result from the misuse of pesticides.

As examples of plants affected by pollution, we find garden crops, ornamental flowers, Hijazi
clover, grains, tobacco, lettuce, and decorative trees like Cupressus, jacaranda, and oleander (Al-
Fishawy, 1997).

From this reciprocal relationship between humans and the environment, it is evident that the
environment serves as the framework in which humans live, obtain the essentials of life, such as
food and clothing, and engage in relationships with their fellow human beings. Therefore, the
first step for humans to safeguard life is to genuinely understand the environment, including all
its elements, components, and interrelationships. Subsequently, individuals should engage in
serious collective efforts to protect and improve the environment. They should strive to obtain
their livelihoods and conduct their relationships without causing harm or degradation.

Fifth: Environmental Pollution Problem

Pollution is considered the most dangerous disaster facing humanity, defined as environmental
deterioration resulting from a disturbance in the harmony of its components, causing it to lose its
ability to perform its natural functions. Bringing about changes in the environment surrounding
living organisms leads to the emergence of substances that do not align with the habitat of these
organisms, causing imbalance. Humans are primarily responsible for turning these pollutants into
valuable resources or transforming them into harmful substances. Biological waste from animals,
for instance, serves as a beneficial resource when used as soil fertiliser. However, improper
disposal in water outlets can lead to the spread of diseases and epidemics. The outcomes of
human economic activities contribute significantly to environmental pollution, transcending local
or global boundaries. Pollutants move through atmospheric layers without regard for
geographical or political boundaries (Kezia, 2009).

Furthermore, manufacturing plays a role in transforming a healthy environment into a harmful

one, giving rise to social, economic, and other environmental changes (Christopher et al., 2004).
Environmental and climate scientists have different definitions of environmental pollution.
Regardless of the definition, the scientific concept is linked to the ecological system. The
efficiency of this system significantly decreases, and it becomes paralysed when there is a
disruption in the harmonious interaction between its various components. Pollution introduces
elements not originally present in the ecological system, either increasing or decreasing the
levels of its components in a way that impairs the system's ability to adapt. This leads to a
disturbance in the ecological system (Matthew and Nicholas, 2022).

The Connection between Pollution and Human Activities:

The pollution issue is closely linked to the waste and various elements released by human
activities into nature and the ability of ecological systems to contain these wastes. The cleaner
the environment, the more harmonious the relationship between the two domains. Conversely, as
waste overwhelms the absorption capacity of the ecological system, pollution occurs in varying
degrees. Environmental pollution, especially, and contemporary environmental issues in general,
have acquired a global dimension. Various types of pollutants do not recognise political or
regional boundaries. They can move from the far north to the far south, and pollution may
manifest itself in a country that does not engage in industrial or mining activities. This can
happen due to the transfer of pollutants from an industrially polluted country to another (Kezia,
2009).

Transport of Pollutants by Wind and Water Currents:

Wind, clouds, and water currents significantly transport pollutants from one country to another.
Emissions such as vapours, smoke, and gases from factories' chimneys in Western Europe can be
carried by winds to distant places, including remote locations like Greenland, Sweden, and
northwest Russia. Additionally, ocean currents can carry oil slicks leaked into the sea from
shipwrecks to different locations, posing a threat to safe shores and diverse marine life of various
species and types.

Unprecedented Environmental Pollution:

The world had never witnessed environmental pollution on the scale caused by oil wells burning
in Kuwait. A staggering 732 out of 1080 wells were destroyed and set ablaze in the northern,
western, and southern regions (Christopher et al., 2004). The estimated amount of burning
petroleum from these wells was around 6 million barrels daily. Some of it ignited, while the rest
emerged from the wells as crude oil, creating oil lakes. Approximately 200 of these oil lakes
covered vast areas with depths ranging from 5 to 30 centimetres. The black smoke from burning
petroleum was estimated at 14-40 thousand tons per day, with sulfur compound emissions
around 5-6 thousand tons per day and nitrogen oxides at 500-6000 tons per day (Kezia, 2009).
Environmental scientists agree that the impacts of this catastrophe were not confined to Kuwait
or the Gulf region but affected distant areas and countries. Scientific reports following this
phenomenon indicated that the dense black smoke plumes from the Kuwaiti oil fires approached
the Greek coast after crossing the Black Sea, posing threats to countries in that region, such as
Romania and Bulgaria (Christopher et al., 2004).
Environmental Pollution Levels:

• Acceptable Pollution: Nearly no region on Earth is entirely free from this pollution level
due to its ease of transfer between locations, whether through climatic or human factors.
Acceptable pollution is the degree to which the ecological system's balance is unaffected
and is not accompanied by major environmental hazards or problems (Bran and Brosnan,
2002).
• Hazardous Pollution: Many industrialised countries suffer from hazardous pollution,
primarily from industrial activities, increased mining activities, and a heavy reliance on
coal and petroleum. This stage is considered an advanced level of pollution, where the
quantity and quality of pollutants exceed the critical ecological threshold. This threshold
marks the point at which adverse effects on the natural and human elements of the
environment begin (Saadawi, 2014). This stage requires prompt measures to mitigate
negative impacts. It can be achieved by treating industrial pollution using modern
technological means, such as establishing processing units capable of reducing pollutant
levels to internationally allowed standards. Alternatively, regulations, legislation, and
taxes on factories contributing to increased pollution can be implemented (Al-Bebany,
2006).
• Destructive Pollution: Destructive pollution represents a stage where the ecological
system collapses, becoming incapable of functioning due to a fundamental imbalance.
The Chernobyl incident, which occurred in the nuclear reactors of the Soviet Union, is a
prime example of destructive pollution. The entire environmental system collapsed,
requiring extensive human intervention and significant economic costs to restore its
balance. Environmental experts in the Soviet Union mentioned that the Chernobyl region
and its adjacent areas would need approximately fifty years to restore their ecological
balance to a level that allows for a sustainable pattern of life (Al-Bebany, 2006).

Types of Environmental Pollution: Environmental pollution is defined as the negative

alteration of the characteristics of the natural environment and its various elements. Air pollution
results from the emission of harmful gases and smoke, water pollution from the improper use of
chemicals, and soil pollution due to the indiscriminate use of pesticides, fertilisers, and solid
waste (Al-Tantawi, 2015). There are two types of pollution: external and internal. External
pollution results from various gases and particles within the atmospheric envelope, stemming
from the combustion of fuels used in vehicles, heating buildings, as well as burning fuel in many
industrial and commercial processes. The incineration of solid waste, whether from factories or
household use, releases smoke and heavy metals such as lead and mercury into the atmosphere.
Smog, a mixture of gases and dust, is considered one of the most significant external air
pollutants and forms when fossil fuel combustion gases react with sunlight in the atmosphere
(Al-Tantawi, 2018).

1. Air Pollution: Air pollution is the negative alteration of air characteristics resulting from
harmful emissions from burning fossil fuels in factories, vehicle engines on the streets, forest
fires, solid waste combustion, and quarrying operations. These emissions include carbon dioxide,
the most environmentally harmful gas, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, chlorocarbon
compounds, and nitrogen oxides produced by industrial processes (Al-Tantawi, 2018).
Air pollution is a disturbance in the air ecological system resulting from the release of large
quantities of gaseous and solid elements, leading to significant changes in the properties and
composition of air elements. Many of these elements transform from beneficial to harmful
(pollutants), causing many damages and risks, including death and destruction of living and non-
living components. Air pollutants include various gases and particles emitted from different
sources, such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, iron oxide
gases, chlorine, fluorine, and various particles like lead, mercury, ammonia, urea, dust, and
others (Hasan, 1999). Air pollution occurs when organic or inorganic particles are present in the
air in large quantities and cannot enter the ecological system without causing harm to
environmental elements.

Air is the gas mixture that fills the atmosphere, including water vapour. It is primarily composed
of nitrogen with a percentage of 78.084%, oxygen with a percentage of 20.946%, carbon dioxide
with a percentage of 0.033%, water vapour, and some inert gases. The significance of oxygen
lies in its crucial role in the respiration of living organisms, which cannot survive without it.
Oxygen also contributes to the formation of living cells, accounting for a quarter of the total
atoms in their composition (Hasan, 1999). Maintaining the balance of oxygen is essential for
environmental equilibrium. Plants compensate for their depletion through photosynthesis, where
water interacts with carbon dioxide in the presence of light energy absorbed by the plant through
the green chlorophyll substance.

However, the Earth has witnessed the destruction of forests, human encroachment on green
agricultural areas, and factories emitting massive amounts of pollutants. All of these actions have
had adverse effects on the environmental balance. As a result, the percentage of carbon dioxide
pollution has increased from 0.029% at the end of the last century to 0.033% in 2000 (Kezia,
2009). It is expected to reach more than 0.038% by 2030. Air pollution leads to physiological,
economic, and vital human, animal, and plant damage. The annual global losses due to air
pollution are estimated to be around 5 billion dollars (Enes and Turan, 2022).

Air pollution is considered the most widespread form of environmental pollution due to its ease
of spreading from one area to another over a relatively short period. Additionally, it directly
impacts humans, animals, and plants, leaving clear environmental, health, and economic effects.
These effects include impacts on human health and a decrease in productivity. The impact
extends to animals, causing diseases and reducing economic value. Its impact on plants is evident
in the decreased agricultural productivity in areas suffering from increased concentrations of air
pollutants. There are also indirect effects on the global climate system. The increase in the
concentration of certain gases, such as carbon dioxide, leads to global warming, resulting in
changes in the climate with potentially serious consequences (Adetutu, 2010).

Sources of Air Pollution

Air pollution sources can be divided into natural and anthropogenic sources produced by human
activities. They can also be divided into stationary sources (factories, residential buildings,
power plants) and mobile sources such as vehicles (Kezia, 2009).

Natural sources of air pollution include:

 • Nitrogen oxides, which have a concentration of 0.52 parts per million in clean air. These
oxides are produced by sunlight and lightning, as the nitrogen bond in nitrogen molecules
breaks down, and the resulting nitrogen atoms react with oxygen to produce these oxides.
• Ozone (O3), which is also produced by sunlight and lightning.
• Carbon monoxide (CO), which is produced by the oxidation of methane.
• Sulfur compounds which are produced by volcanoes.
• Harmful gases released by the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter.

Other natural sources of air pollution include:

• Sand storms that carry dust particles into the air.

• Pollen grains that are released from flowers.
• Salts coming from water droplets that are carried into the air from seawater (Enes and
Turan, 2022).

Industrial Sources of Air Pollution

The Industrial Revolution, which began in the 19th century, led to radical changes in human life.
Three main processes can be distinguished that resulted in a significant increase in pollutant
quantities: the development of urban centres and the growth of cities as people transitioned from
rural to urban living, the evolution of transportation and motorised vehicles, and industrial
development, which led to the intensive and increasing use of fossil energy sources such as coal,
petroleum, and natural gas (Ibrahim and Hanafy, 2021).

The combustion process resembles the respiratory process that occurs within the bodies of living
organisms, extracting energy, and the primary products of both combustion and respiration are
carbon dioxide and water. In addition to carbon dioxide and water, other substances are
produced, such as sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, which contribute to the formation of acid
rain. It is worth noting that nitrogen oxides do not directly result from the combustion process
but are produced through the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen due to the high temperatures
during combustion. The pollutants directly produced from combustion are called "primary
pollutants." However, secondary pollutants also result from chemical reactions between primary
pollutants and other atmospheric substances (Enes and Turan, 2022).

Table (1) Contribution of various air pollution sources at the beginning of the twenty-first century.

Source
Contribution of the source to air pollution in percentage (%).
Transportation
60
Industry
08
Power generation stations
13
Residential heating
06
Waste
03
The source: Vahid et al., 2022.

Sources of industrial air pollution include:

A. Power generation stations: Three main types can be distinguished: stations operating on
coal, stations operating on diesel, and stations operating on nuclear power. Most stations operate
on diesel, and the combustion of coal and diesel leads to significant air pollution with large
quantities of gases.

B. Residential heating: Three main types of residential heating contribute to air pollution: gas
furnaces, where carbon monoxide is emitted from furnaces powered by natural gas and
petroleum derivatives. This gas is highly dangerous, especially in poorly ventilated conditions, as
it is colourless, odourless, and difficult to detect, earning it the nickname "silent killer." It
initially causes dizziness and a lack of concentration, eventually leading to death (Christopher et
al., 2004). The second type is central heating, which relies on solar power and contains sulfur
compounds. The use of these heating methods releases sulfur dioxide and other solid particles
that are expelled through chimneys. Additionally, commonly used wood-burning stoves produce
various carbon compounds with carcinogenic substances and other particles (ash), generally
disposed of in landfills (Ibrahim and Hanafy, 2021).

C. Transportation: Transportation contributes to about 60% of air pollutants, with vehicle

exhaust containing highly dangerous compounds such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, and lead. The used fuel contains hydrocarbons and other organic
compounds containing sulfur and nitrogen. The complete combustion of this fuel produces
carbon dioxide and water, along with sulfur and nitrogen oxides. Partial combustion of these
substances produces hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. The combustion of fuel in vehicles
leads to air pollution with lead compounds. Other substances, such as ethylene bromide, are
added to the fuel to remove lead compounds from the engine (Saadawi, 2014).

D. Industry: The primary source of air pollution from industry is fuel combustion used in
production processes. Fuel combustion in industrial processes releases toxic gases into the air,
including sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide. Moreover, some industries emit
solid particles and dust. China is considered one of the world's most air-polluted countries,
leading to the loss of more than two million people in 2021 for various reasons. About 36%
experienced a stroke, approximately 36% due to heart diseases, 14% due to respiratory
inflammation, 8% due to lung cancer, and 6% due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(Matthew and Nicholas, 2022).

Table (2) Percentage of Environmental Pollutants by Source in Africa.

Contribution of pollutants (%)

Pollutants Commercial Traditional Agricultural Manufacturing
Energy Energy Sector and Others

Particles 35 10 40 15
 Lead 41 vanishingly small vanishingly small 59

Cadmium 13 05 12 70

Mercury 20 01 02 77

Non-methane
35 05 40 20
Hydrocarbons

Sulfur 85 0.5 01 13

Nitrogen Oxides 30 02 67 01

Carbon Dioxide 75 03 15 07

Methane 18 05 65 12

Nitrous Oxide 12 08 80 vanishingly small

The source: Kezia et al., 2022.

In Africa, according to Table (2), commercial energy supply, predominantly fossil fuels,
generally ranks first in contributing to air pollutants, except for nitrogen oxides and non-methane
hydrocarbons. Additionally, particulates, known as dust and airborne pollutants, predominantly
emanate from the agricultural sector, primarily from burning agricultural residues.

However, manufacturing contributes significantly to lead, cadmium, and mercury pollution. A

United Nations Environment Programme report highlighted that using solid fuel in traditional
cooking stoves makes pollutant concentrations 10 to 30 times higher than the safe levels defined
by the World Health Organization (Al-Tantawi, 2018).

At the level of African countries, Figure (1) illustrates the proportion of carbon dioxide
emissions from African nations. South Africa ranks first in carbon dioxide emissions, followed
by Zimbabwe with a 3.5% contribution, Morocco and Egypt contributing 1.2%. The rest of the
continent's countries contribute around 1.1%, mainly due to the absence of industries emitting
emissions. Some countries are rich in natural vegetation, acting as natural carbon dioxide sinks.
 Source: Economic Commission for Africa, 2012, Enes & Turan. P., 2022

It cannot be said that the African continent is responsible for air pollution; instead, it is
the biggest global victim of this pollution. Its impact is evident in various human
activities, affecting human health and spreading diseases that the continent struggles to
address, weakening human capacity for productivity and work and hindering
development. It is worth noting that African countries have not prioritised addressing
these pollutants before they reach the atmosphere, negatively impacting human health
and activities. As a result, approximately 50,000 people on the continent died due to air
pollution in 2019 (Enes and Turan, 2022).

2- Water Pollution: The hydrosphere constitutes more than 70% of the Earth's surface,
with a volume of approximately 296 million cubic miles of water. The significance of
water is evident as it is a source of life on the Earth's surface, and it should be maintained
and preserved for the ecological system's balance. Water pollution is any direct or
indirect physical or chemical change in water quality and can be classified into two main
types.

The first is natural pollution, appearing in changes in water temperature, increased

salinity, or the presence of suspended particles. The second type is chemical pollution,
taking various forms, such as pollution from sewage and petroleum leakage, as well as
pollution from agricultural waste, such as insecticides and fertilisers (Al-Tantawi, 2018).

Unsurprisingly, the volume of studies on this topic is larger than that of those that have
addressed other branches of pollution. This may be attributed to two reasons:

First, water's importance and necessity, as it is involved in all biological and industrial
processes. No living organism can survive without it, regardless of its shape, type, or
size. Living beings need water to exist, and plants also need it to grow (Vahid et al.,
2022). The second reason is that water occupies a larger space in the biosphere, leading
some scientists to refer to it as the "water ball" instead of the Earth. Water constitutes
approximately 60-70% of the bodies of higher organisms, including humans, and about
90% of the bodies of lower organisms. Therefore, water pollution leads to considerable
harm and significant dangers to living organisms, disrupting the ecological balance,
which would be meaningless and valueless if the properties of its main component were
corrupted (Al-Bibani, 2006).
Sources of Water Pollution

Water is contaminated by human, plant, animal, metal, industrial, and chemical waste
disposed into water bodies such as oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers. Groundwater also
becomes polluted due to sewage and drainage water infiltration, including bacteria and
chemical compounds. Pollution of water bodies with human waste in sewage leads to the
presence of disease-causing agents (Matthew and Nicholas, 2022). The characteristics of
surface water change due to pollution caused by industrial, agricultural, and domestic
wastewater, as well as the excessive use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides. Dead
animals thrown into water bodies, mixing waterways with sewage systems, and waste
from ships and boats, along with petroleum waste, contribute to water pollution. Water is
polluted by anything that alters its properties or changes its nature, and water pollution is
one of the most significant environmental pollutants that affect the development process,
especially in poor and developing countries that lack the technical or financial capacity to
address it (Al-Tantawi, 2018). The most important water pollutants include (Bran and
Brosnan, 2002):

• Polluted Rainwater: Rainwater, especially in industrial areas, becomes polluted as it

collects pollutants from the air during its descent, including nitrogen oxides, sulfur
oxides, and dust particles. It is worth mentioning that rainwater pollution is a relatively
new phenomenon with the spread of industrialisation, where large amounts of waste,
gases, and dust are released into the air or water. In the past, humanity did not experience
this type of pollution; rainwater used to be free of impurities, remaining pure until it
reached the Earth's surface (Vahid et al., 2022). "If rainwater is pure at its formation, its
continuity in that state is impossible," so said humanity, and thus it has been. The air is
filled with solid and gaseous pollutants emitted by factory chimneys, machinery engines,
and vehicles. These pollutants dissolve in rainwater and fall with snow, getting absorbed
by the soil, adding a new quantity of pollutants to the existing ones in the soil. Plants
absorb these toxins, and if humans or animals consume these plants, it may lead to
poisoning. Polluted rainwater falling over oceans, seas, rivers, and lakes can also lead to
marine organisms and fish poisoning.
• Sewage Water: Sewage water is contaminated with soap, industrial cleaners, certain
bacteria, and harmful microorganisms. When sewage water reaches rivers and lakes, it
furthers pollution (Al-Bibani, 2006).
• Industrial Waste: Industrial waste includes waste from food, chemical, and fibre
factories, leading to water pollution with fats, bacteria, blood, acids, alkalis, dyes,
petroleum, petroleum compounds, chemicals, and toxic salts such as mercury and arsenic,
as well as heavy metal salts like lead and cadmium (Al-Fishawi, 1999).
• Nuclear Reactors: Nuclear reactors cause thermal pollution of water, adversely affecting
the environment, potentially causing radioactive contamination that may impact future
generations of humans and other organisms.
• Insecticides: Insecticides are used to eliminate harmful weeds; some are discharged into
wastewater. Additionally, water in irrigation canals and channels used for cleaning
spraying equipment and machines becomes contaminated with these insecticides. This
contamination leads to the death of fish and marine organisms and can result in the death
 of animals that drink from water sources contaminated with these pesticides. The tragedy
that occurred in Iraq in 1972 serves as a poignant example when a type of insecticide
containing mercury was used, leading to around 6,000 people being hospitalised, with
500 fatalities (Al-Bibani, 2006).
• Pollution from Oil Leakage into Seas and Stations: This type of pollution occurs either
due to sinking ship accidents, which recur annually, or as a result of these ships
conducting cleaning operations, washing their tanks, and disposing of the polluted water
into the open sea (Ibrahim and Hanafy, 2021). Another cause of seawater pollution with
petroleum is leakage that occurs during oil exploration and drilling operations, as seen on
the shores of California in the United States in the late 1960s. As a result, a large oil
slick, about 800 miles long, formed in the waters of the Pacific Ocean. This led to the
death of countless seabirds, marine mammals, fish, and other marine organisms
(Christopher et al., 2004).

Fig (2) Geographical Distribution of Clean Water Supplies in African Countries

Source: UNEP, 2010

The greatest danger of water pollution lies in water suitable for drinking. Unfortunately,
some rivers, such as the River Ruhr in Germany, are no longer suitable for this purpose.
Furthermore, stagnant water becomes a fertile breeding ground for the growth and
proliferation of disease-causing parasites such as cholera, bilharzia, typhoid fever,
dysentery, and other diseases. Water pollution also results from the leakage of petroleum
and petrochemicals caused by the repeated destruction of oil pipelines, as seen in the
Niger Delta region by rebels. Additionally, the destruction of coastal oil platforms and
refineries has led to the leakage of millions of barrels of oil, causing the death of
hundreds of marine and terrestrial species and impacting agricultural lands (Saadawi,
2014).

Figure (2) illustrates the percentage of clean water availability in African countries,
showing a general water scarcity suitable for use. Only six countries, including Egypt,
South Africa, and Tunisia, are exceptions, where clean water is available at a rate
exceeding 80%. However, most countries on the continent suffer from a deficit of 50% or
more in usable water. The lack of access to clean water is responsible for 10% of the
prevalent diseases on the continent, with 19 African countries lacking the minimum
requirement for clean water (Al-Tantawi, 2018).

3. Soil Pollution: Soil is considered the primary and fundamental component of the
ecological system, serving as the foundation of life and the secret to its sustainability. The
significant population increase has undoubtedly exerted intense pressure on the
environmental elements in this part of the ecological system, depleting numerous
environmental components due to humans' inability to maintain and protect them from
deterioration. Poor land use leads to decreased productivity, transforming it from a
productive element to a non-productive one, with its biological capacity potentially
reaching zero.

Human misuse of technology has resulted in the emergence of soil pollution. The
increased use of nitrogen fertilisers to compensate for soil fertility loss and insecticides to
protect agricultural products from pests has led to soil contamination with chemicals,
compromising its biological capabilities. Further, the rise of industrial and mining
activities has increased the presence of pollutants and solid wastes, whether chemical or
radioactive (Gary et al., 2005). Some governments dispose of these wastes on the ground
or bury them underground, resulting in clear negative impacts on humans, animals, and
plants in the long run.

Soil becomes polluted due to the accumulation of solid materials and waste generated by
factories, farms, clubs, homes, markets, and streets. Additionally, soil pollution occurs
from agricultural residues such as crop stubble and the ash from their burning (Bran and
Brosnan, 2002).

Impact of Insecticides: Pesticides contribute to soil pollution, accelerate desertification

and seriously threaten human health. They persist in the soil for an extended period and
can be absorbed by plants during their growth period and in agricultural products
consumed by humans. This exposure leads to various serious diseases. The impact
extends further as it affects human health through animals and birds consumed as food.

Regional and international organisations caution against the continued use of pesticides
(Al-Tantawi, 2018). While these pesticides effectively combat harmful insects, they have
a lethal effect on the bacteria in the soil, responsible for breaking down organic matter
into simple chemical compounds absorbed by plants. Consequently, soil fertility
decreases with continued pesticide use. The residues of these substances can persist in
agricultural soil for a long time without decomposition (Al-Bibani, 2006).

One of the most notorious insecticides that harm human health is those containing
mercury compounds. The disease resulting from mercury poisoning is called Minamata
disease, named after Minamata Bay in Japan, where the disease first appeared in 1953.
The United Nations Environment Programme stated that 28% of African diseases result
from environmental pollution, including water pollution causing diarrheal diseases and
air pollution causing respiratory diseases (Vahid, 2022).
Sixth: Radioactive Pollution

The volume of radioactive pollution has increased over the past fifty years. Initially,
radiation sources were limited to cosmic rays and other natural sources, such as radiation
from rocks and elements like potassium. However, human intervention introduced
additional radiation, contaminating the air, water, and food (Yuze et al., 2022). The
danger of atomic radiation became evident after 1940 when researchers and doctors
discovered the link between pregnant women's exposure to X-rays and fetal deformities.

Nuclear fission and the establishment of the first nuclear reactor in 1942 marked the true
beginning of environmental pollution by nuclear radiation. This pollution increased
significantly due to atomic weapons production at the end of World War II and
subsequent wars and nuclear explosions. Between 1945 and 1963, the world witnessed
numerous nuclear tests. The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the
subsequent atomic fallout led to environmental radiation contamination, causing various
diseases, deformities, and disasters (Matthew and Nicholas, 2022). While nuclear
explosions are among the most dangerous sources of radioactive pollution, others have
contributed to its increase.

These sources include nuclear reactors and the resulting radiation pollution due to their
widespread use and occasional explosions, as seen in the Chernobyl nuclear reactor
explosion (UNEP, 2010).

Other sources of pollution involve using nuclear energy, using radioactive isotopes in
scientific experiments in the medical and biological sciences, diagnosing and treating
diseases through radiation, and emissions from devices such as televisions, computers,
and other electronic devices. In addition, certain medical devices, space research
equipment, and aircraft power devices contribute to radiation pollution. Radioactive
materials can get into the human body through contaminated food and water with
radioactive isotopes or atomic dust settling on plants, animals, and water bodies.

Health Impacts of Radiation Pollution:

Humans are susceptible to various diseases due to radiation exposure, including skin
redness or eye darkening, bone marrow cell atrophy, and damage to reproductive cells.
Moreover, late-stage effects include blood cancer, thyroid cancer, and lung cancer.
Radiation exposure can decrease white blood cells and intestinal inflammation and
extend its risks to plants, fish, and birds, disrupting the ecological balance and causing
harm to the food chain. As radiation pollution worsened, scientists worldwide intensified
studies and research on the characteristics of radioactive substances, their transmission to
the human body, and the adverse effects on living organisms, along with exploring
measures for protection from such harm ([Link]
Radiation Pollution Studies and Concerns:

Numerous studies have been dedicated to meticulously examining radioactive isotopes'

natural and chemical properties and understanding how they contaminate food, water,
and air. These studies also explore atomic radiation's impact on cells, its correlation with
diseases, and its effects on genetic traits. Research focuses on biological foundations for
protecting against radiation hazards and regulating rules and means for transporting
radioactive materials.

Many countries have taken a keen interest in studying methods of disposing of

radioactive waste. Additionally, there is a focus on monitoring radiation pollution in
humans, especially individuals working in the medical and biological fields, nuclear
reactors, mining, and industries involving radioactive materials (UNEP, 2010). Radiation
pollution sources include both natural sources and those resulting from human activities.
Natural sources encompass cosmic rays, terrestrial X-rays, and gamma rays from rocks
and radioactive potassium. Human-induced sources include X-rays used in the medical
fields, radioactive materials in the biological sciences, as well as radiation from nuclear
reactors, nuclear weapons, and electronic devices (UNEP, 2006).

Natural Sources:

A. Cosmic Radiation:

• The quantity of cosmic radiation varies with elevation above sea level and
geographical location.
• The amount decreases in places near sea level and increases with elevation. For
instance, cosmic radiation triples for every ten thousand feet of elevation.
• Notably, the Earth's atmosphere acts as a protective barrier against cosmic
radiation.
• Some radioactive substances are formed in the atmospheric layer due to the
interaction of certain materials with their components. For example, radioactive
carbon-14 is produced when cosmic rays interact with nitrogen-14 (UNEP, 2006).

B. Radiation from the soil:

• The outer layer of the Earth's crust contains small amounts of radioactive elements
like uranium and thorium.
• The concentration of these elements varies between soil types, with higher
concentrations found in granite rocks and lower concentrations in sandy soil.
• Soil also contains small amounts of radioactive calcium-48.
• Radiation from the soil primarily consists of gamma radiation, as alpha and beta
radiation are absorbed within the outer layer of the soil (Gary et al., 2005).
C. Radioactive Materials in Food and Human Body:

• Some naturally occurring radioactive elements like carbon-14 and potassium-40

are present in human food and the body.
• The human body also contains radium-226, polonium-210, and strontium-90. The
amount of radiation varies from one organ to another; for example, the lungs
receive more natural radiation than the bone marrow.
• It is worth noting that the lungs of smokers contain a higher amount of radioactive
substances compared to non-smokers. The increased presence of radioactive
substances in the lungs of smokers is considered a significant factor in lung cancer
(UNEP, 2010).

Industrial Sources:

• Radiation Used in Health Sciences:

o X-rays or nuclear radiation are used in the diagnosis and treatment of
diseases.
o Some medications containing trace elements are used in treating diseases.
For example, radioactive iodine is used in treating thyroid poisoning.
o Studies indicate an increased use of radioactive medications, making them
a significant source of human radiation exposure (Carolyn, 2013).
• Nuclear Reactors:
• After the discovery of nuclear fission, the first nuclear reactor was established in
1942, followed by the Manhattan Project, which created the first atomic weapons
at the end of World War II.
• Nuclear reactors have been and continue to be used for power generation. The use
of these reactors results in environmental radiation pollution, especially in the
areas surrounding the reactors.
• Environmental pollution may significantly increase due to accidents involving the
explosion of nuclear reactors, such as the Chernobyl nuclear disaster. Materials
leaked from nuclear reactors during accidents, such as iodine, tritium, and
scattered plutonium particles, pose a risk to humans as they are inhaled with the
polluted air (Yuze et al., 2022).

• Nuclear Weapons:

• The first nuclear weapon was detonated in 1945 in Hiroshima and Nagasaki,
Japan. Nuclear weapon tests continued extensively until 1963 in the United States,
the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom.
• In 1963, the three major powers agreed to ban above-ground nuclear weapon tests.
However, some limited tests continued globally. France and China conducted
limited tests during this period. The nuclear tests continued after an agreement
 among the three major powers underground, aiming to protect the environment
from pollution.
• Despite precautions, underground nuclear tests added a small amount of atomic
dust laden with radioactive substances to the environment (UNEP, 2010).

• Other Sources: In addition to the previous sources that constitute the major part of
radiation pollution, there are other sources such as television, computers, electronic
devices, X-ray machines used in the aircraft and space industry, and the use of
radioactive isotopes.

The Impact of Radiation Pollution on the Environment: Radiation pollution occurs

when radioactive materials (solid, liquid, or gaseous) are released or leaked from
containers through holes or cracks or as a result of their explosion. Radioactive materials
merge into different environmental elements, such as water, soil, and air, and then
transfer to humans. The impact of radiation pollution on the environment includes the
following:

• Impact of Radiation Pollution on Water: It can directly reach humans through

leakage or by consuming marine animals, fish, and plants that can concentrate
radioactive materials in their bodies.
• Impact of Radiation Pollution on Soil: It directly transfers to plants and humans
or when consuming animals that feed on contaminated plants. However, the
leakage of radioactive materials into the soil is less hazardous due to its localised
nature. Radioactive materials take a long time to move through soil layers to reach
groundwater. This type of pollution is easier to detect, identify, handle, and treat
(Morgan, 1995).
• Impact of Radiation Pollution on Air: This leads to widespread pollution in vast
areas if winds move the radioactive cloud (like what happened in the Chernobyl
accident). Airborne pollution may end with the fall of radioactive dust in different
areas, leading to land and water contamination. This type of pollution only occurs
in major accidents where the reactor core is destroyed.
• Impact of Radiation Pollution on Humans: Radiation pollution has become a
real and undeniable threat due to its harmful effects on human life. When a person
inhales alpha-emitting particles, the gas adheres to the lining of the bronchial tubes
and lungs. It is worth noting that all these isotopes emit gamma rays, posing a risk
of respiratory diseases such as lung cancer. These persistent diseases spread
throughout countries worldwide. Air pollution also occurs with an increased
concentration of radon gas, a colourless and odourless inert gas that seeps into the
atmosphere. It has radioactive activity, leading to the decay of alpha-charged
particles. Therefore, a radical solution and immediate treatment are necessary for
this alarming disease. The solution lies in globally preventing the use of nuclear
reactors and nuclear weapons (Kezia, 2009).
Seventh: The Impact of Environmental Pollution on Development

Various air pollutants, such as greenhouse gases, notably carbon dioxide and methane,
and pollution from natural, physical, and biological processes, such as volcanic eruptions
and wars, negatively influence the natural environmental elements necessary for
development (Economic Commission for Africa, 2012).

Pollution, in its various forms, directly or indirectly affects development. Exposure to

high Ozone concentrations has a direct impact on human health. In some cases, the
presence of ozone in the lower layers of the atmosphere can lead to death. Additionally, it
affects agricultural productivity and, at times, causes the destruction of a great number of
trees, reduces crop yields, and depletes resources. Smoke fog components can cause
headaches, eye irritation, and respiratory irritation in many individuals (Kezia, 2009).

The indirect impact involves gases emitted from the Earth into the atmosphere, causing
global warming, also known as modern climate change, with negative effects on human
health and the expansion of certain diseases, such as malaria in Africa. Malaria has begun
to spread in high-altitude regions in East Africa, where it was not present. In 13 African
countries, insecticides like DDT are used to combat malaria. However, such chemical
pesticides "have caused a range of chronic and serious diseases threatening human life,
such as cancer and reproductive health problems. In some countries like Mauritius, DDT
is sprayed in its ports to prevent the spread of malaria into the country. Still, the
continued use of this toxic substance can destroy fragile ecological systems, thus
affecting nutrition and food security for coastal area residents. Air pollution spreads
respiratory diseases and increases the suffering of cardiovascular and respiratory
diseases. Air pollution is a major cause of diseases and deaths in Africa, causing about
40,000 deaths annually. The problem is exacerbated by rapid urbanisation and weak
infrastructure on the continent. Indoor pollution is the deadliest, causing respiratory
infections that kill between 352,000 and 484,000 children under the age of five each year
(Carolyn, 2013).

The increase in temperature resulting from current climate changes leads to various
problems, such as melting ice in polar regions, causing a rise in sea levels and subsequent
flooding of extensive areas along the African continent, especially on islands. It can also
change precipitation patterns, increasing droughts, floods, and severe tropical storms
(Vahid et al., 2022). Environmental pollution is also considered one of the challenges to
development in the tourism sector. Tourism is seen as a means of sustainable
development by integrating community resource management.
Limiting pollution and protecting the ecosystem can increase opportunities for tourism in
tourist areas, natural reserves, coastal regions, mountains, parks, wildlife, urban
environments, cultural attractions, distinctive environmental sites, and islands known for
rare species of plants, animals, and birds. Scarcity and pollution of drinkable water
negatively affect living organisms, impacting individuals, families, and communities
significantly. Water is a vital necessity for humans and all living beings, and polluted
water can be a major cause of ending life on Earth. Health problems associated with
environmental pollution in Africa pose a developmental obstacle, especially in urban and
industrial centres.

These pollutants include open municipal garbage dumps, lead-containing gasoline in old
fleets of cars and poorly maintained vehicles, the inefficient use of fossil fuels in
electricity generation, and emissions of particles and sulfur dioxide from industrial
facilities. This change also negatively affects the continent's biodiversity, water, and food
security (Al-Tantawi, 2018).

Eighth: Climate Change: There is much discussion about climate change, especially
after the Glasgow Summit in 2021, during which the British Prime Minister stated that
Alexandria is one of the areas most affected by climate change. It may lose a third of its
area due to rising sea levels resulting from ice melting due to rising temperatures, an
unprecedented phenomenon since the beginning of climate monitoring. In the following
paragraphs, we will explain some aspects of climate change from a simplified scientific
perspective, starting with defining the phenomenon, stating its causes and effects on
humans and their various activities, and then addressing ways to confront or mitigate its
dangers.

Climatology is a branch of physical geography that focuses on the spatial distribution of

atmospheric phenomena on the Earth's surface and analyses the geographical factors
influencing climate. In its simplest definition, climate is the average monthly, seasonal, or
annual weather conditions in a location over a climatic cycle (at least 30 years). On the
other hand, meteorology is the atmospheric conditions in a location for a day or a few
days. Climate change is the deviation from the average in climate elements according to
statistical and methodological calculations or the change in climate elements over time,
altering the climate from its usual state. This definition differs from climate variability,
which refers to fluctuations in climate elements that return to their averages between
years or decades without changing the climate's nature. Global warming is the increase in
the Earth's average surface temperature, atmosphere, and oceans. Because climate is a
governing factor in human life, health, and various activities, any change in climate
elements is considered one of the biggest obstacles to human development, especially in
developing countries. International organisations, governments, and entities have focused
on studying climate change, its "causes, aspects, and its impact on the environmental,
social, and economic systems, as well as on world heritage and how to confront or adapt
to it". Studies, seminars, and conferences on climate change have multiplied at the local,
regional, and global levels. Most governments have given significant attention to this
matter. In this context, 191 countries signed the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC). An annual summit at the presidential level has been
dedicated to climate change to discuss the phenomenon and explore ways to mitigate its
risks. The latest summit was held in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt, in 2022, serving as a crucial
station in facing climate change.

Despite climate change being a global phenomenon, its impacts vary from place to place
on the Earth's surface, and Egypt is considered one of the most vulnerable countries to
climate change risks. This is despite its minimal contribution to greenhouse gas
emissions, accounting for only 0.6% of the world's total emissions, according to the latest
data reported by Egypt on the size of greenhouse gas emissions. This was done as part of
Egypt's implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change, which Egypt signed in 1994, and the Kyoto Protocol, which Egypt signed in
2005.

As climate change is currently one of the most important issues for many specialists and
non-specialists alike, the world had to strive to find solutions to this serious
environmental problem, the impact of which extends beyond human activities to the
survival and continuity of life on Earth. In the late twentieth century, natural sciences,
especially climatology, focused on studying climate change and investigating its causes.
Numerous studies indicate a significant and continuous increase in Earth's temperature
since the mid-nineteenth century. Climate scientists expect a substantial rise in surface
temperatures during the twenty-first century.

Causes of Climate Change:

• Natural Causes: The most important include solar spots, Earth's rotation,
volcanoes, atmospheric pressure over seas and oceans, and phenomena like El
Niño. Studies and international reports attribute most global warming in the first
half of the twentieth century to these natural factors. Volcanoes have a mixed
impact on climate; their explosions release airborne particles that cool the Earth
and produce carbon dioxide, but in amounts 50 times less than human activities, so
the prevailing effect of volcanic eruptions is cooling rather than warming.
• Human Causes: Greenhouse gases are crucial natural factors that make the Earth
habitable and prevent it from freezing, as they are the gaseous elements of the
atmosphere that absorb and re-emit infrared radiation, leading to the warming of the
Earth's surface—a natural cosmic process. These gases' most important natural sources
include water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, and ozone. However, since the beginning
of the industrial revolution, human activities have accelerated the concentration of these
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, rapidly increasing surface temperature and
surpassing natural rates. This phenomenon is attributed to human practices and their
unsustainable exploitation of environmental resources, especially greenhouse gases or
pollutants released into the atmosphere through various activities. These pollutants
accumulate in the lower atmosphere near the Earth's surface, allowing solar radiation to
pass through but preventing its complete return, causing the greenhouse effect and raising
the Earth's surface temperature.

The Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

concluded that global emissions of greenhouse gases have reached unprecedented levels
despite policies aimed at reducing them. To limit the temperature increase to two degrees
Celsius, the upper safe limit, emissions of greenhouse gases must be reduced by 40% to
70% from 2010 to 2050 and close to zero by 2100.

Climate Change Manifestations:

The Earth's surface temperature increase, rising ocean levels, and accelerated ice melting
have been confirmed. Reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) indicate that 2015-2019 and the second decade of the 21st century (2010-2019)
were the warmest since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. Among the significant
manifestations of climate change are:

a. Temperature Rise and Increased Heat Extremes: Observed changes have

demonstrated an increase in the global average temperature by about 6.0 degrees Celsius
during the 20th century. It has increased by approximately 1.1 degrees since recording
began. Global efforts are underway to stabilise the increase at 1.5 degrees by 2030 to
avoid the worst potential effects of this rise. The temperature is expected to rise by more
than 4 degrees Celsius by the end of the 21st century if the pace of air pollutant emissions
continues to increase. Carbon dioxide levels reached 148% in 2019 compared to pre-
industrial levels.

b. Changes in Rainfall Patterns: Changes in rainfall patterns include increased

variability, seasonal shifts, and density, accompanied by accelerated droughts and floods
spatially and temporally. If heat emissions exceed 2 degrees Celsius, the risk of
precipitation will increase by 170%.
c. Increase in Tropical, Dust and Sand Storms:

This involves increased tropical, dust, and sand storms resulting from disruptions in
pressure systems, wind directions and wind speeds due to temperature changes.

d. Sea Level Rise:

Recent studies indicate a rise in global sea level by an average of 10 to 20 centimetres

during the twentieth century. This continuous rise is attributed to melting polar ice caps
and mountain peaks, leading to the loss of significant portions of agricultural land. For
example, a one-metre rise in sea level could result in a loss of 12% to 15% of agricultural
land in the Nile Delta region, and it may reduce land area in Qatar by 2.6%. Apart from
the agricultural sector, the rising sea level will negatively affect the industrial, tourism,
and urban sectors and overall GDP.

e. Reduction in Glacier Area in Polar Regions and Mountains:

There is a decrease in the extent of ice cover in the polar regions and mountain peaks.
The total volume of glaciers in Switzerland has decreased by two-thirds, and the
thickness of the ice layer in the Arctic has decreased by about 40% in late summer and
early fall. Mount Kenya has lost 92% of its ice mass, while Mount Kilimanjaro has lost
82%.

f. Other Significant Changes:

Other important changes include a 40-60% decrease in the available water quantity in
large water basins such as the Niger, Lake Chad, and the Senegal River.

Climate Change Impacts:

The issue of climate change has garnered significant attention as one of the foremost
global environmental concerns in the political, media, scientific, and civil society
domains. Despite the Arab region contributing just over 5% and Africa around 6% of
greenhouse gas emissions causing climate change, the impact on these regions will be
extremely severe. In reality, Africa and the Arab world face substantial pressures on
natural and physical systems due to water resource scarcity and the extended coastline
threatened by rising sea levels.

According to recent climate models, the world will experience an increase in surface
temperatures ranging between 2 and 5.5 degrees Celsius, with an average of three degrees
Celsius by the end of the twenty-first century. This temperature increase is expected to be
accompanied by an anticipated decrease in rainfall of up to 20%. The world will endure
consequences such as shorter winters, hotter and drier summers, increased heatwaves,
heightened climate variability, and more frequent extreme weather events (Matthew,
2022).

Impact of Temperature Rise:

The rise in temperatures leads to the occurrence and repetition of drought waves, as
witnessed in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and Syria. This phenomenon threatens water
resources and productive land (Ghraiba, 2022). The recent drought waves in Jordan and
Syria were recorded as the worst in decades. Additionally, the increase in rainfall
variability and water resources is directly linked to climate change in many countries
worldwide. A warmer climate contributes to increased climate variables, raising the risk
of floods and droughts. It exacerbates the risk-laden situation due to chronic water
scarcity faced by most African countries (Economic Commission for Africa, 2012).

Examples of Possible Impacts of Climate Change on the African Continent:

Although climate change is a global phenomenon, its effects vary from one place to
another on the Earth's surface. The phenomenon of climate change poses ethical
challenges to developing countries, not only because their most crucial ecosystems will
be negatively impacted but also because farmers and herders scattered across thousands
of villages will face significant difficulties in securing their livelihoods under the
increasing heat and recurring drought conditions
([Link]

The source: The two researchers relied on data: IPCC, 2022 and Turan., 2022

Fig (3) The impact of climate change on the African continent (2022)

As shown in Figure (3), Africa is the continent most affected and impacted by climate
change, even though it contributes only about 6% of greenhouse gas emissions. Climate
change poses a particular threat to the sustainability of economic growth and livelihoods
for vulnerable populations, primarily since one-third of the continent's population resides
in drought-prone areas. Harsh climate phenomena, such as frequent and severe droughts,
floods, heatwaves, and other climate change-related effects like accelerated
desertification, coastal erosion, species extinction, and habitat loss, wreak havoc on
African economies. The negative impacts of climate change are felt across the continent,
exemplified by recent tropical cyclones Idai and Kenneth, which caused significant
destruction in Malawi, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe, resulting in the deaths of over 1,000
people and leaving hundreds of thousands in need of humanitarian assistance.
Additionally, these events led to massive infrastructure losses (Al-Tantawi, 2018).
Examples of possible impacts of climate change include:

• Climate Change and Soil: The increase in temperature leads to higher rates of
soil drying and exposes it to fragmentation. The rise in salinity levels on the
surface also increases. The frequent occurrence of sandstorms in desert regions
increases erosion rates, exposing the soil. As observed in the northern Egyptian
Delta, rising sea levels result in the inundation of low-lying lands, increasing
groundwater levels and soil salinity. Intense and sudden rainfall, particularly in
arid and semi-arid regions, affects soil exposure and deterioration, as seen in the
Mediterranean and Ethiopia (Morgan, 1995).
• Climate Change and Water Resources: Research and climate predictions
provide sufficient evidence that freshwater resources are scarce in most African
countries, and their vulnerability to climate change could have significant
consequences for human societies. Millions of people in Africa are expected to
face increased water stress due to climate change. Changes in precipitation
patterns directly impact surface water flow and freshwater availability for
consumption. Any alterations in the hydrological cycle are expected to
significantly affect river basins in Africa. It is anticipated that between 75 and 250
million people on the continent will experience increased water stress due to
climate change. Rainfall in northern Egypt is meagre, barely exceeding 50
millimetres annually, with high annual variability ranging from 30% to 50%. Most
rainfall occurs in sudden and irregular bursts during hot summer days, reducing its
actual value.

Moreover, the loss of approximately 50% of the Nile River's revenue from equatorial
sources between Jonglei and Malakal due to rising temperatures, decreased relative
humidity, and the low surface slope of equatorial sources has heightened the impact of
climate change on water resources in Egypt. Various studies have explored the impact of
recent climate fluctuations on the Nile River's flow. Some anticipate that future climate
conditions will result in more arid conditions and, consequently, a decrease in water flow.
Others predict the opposite, forecasting an increase in the river's flow. Some models
expect a 30% increase, while others project a 70% decrease in the amount of rainfall from
the river's sources. Both scenarios have negative consequences. Increasing water
quantities can lead to destructive floods and subsequent negative social and economic
impacts. On the other hand, water scarcity will negatively affect all economic
development activities and human life itself (Carolyn, 2013).

• Climate change and biodiversity: Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns

affect biodiversity, leading to the extinction or migration of certain species.
Deserts are expected to become hotter and drier, resulting in changes to species
and threatening organisms already near their temperature tolerance limits. Changes
in rainfall patterns can also seriously affect biodiversity in arid lands. Island
ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to climate change due to the small and
 specialised populations in confined areas, making them susceptible to extinction.
Other risks to island ecosystems include the increasing frequency and intensity of
storms, decreased rainfall in certain regions, and unprecedented high temperatures.
The World Meteorological Organisation reports indicate that 8% of vertebrates,
16% of plants, and 18% of insects are at risk due to climate change. The rise in sea
surface temperature and changes in water chemistry cause widespread damage to
coral reefs, affecting tourism, a vital source of employment and economic
development for many islands (IPCC, 2022).

The rise in sea levels seriously threatens African coastlines, coastal settlements, lakeside
areas, mangrove forests, and the fishing industry. Countries such as Mozambique,
Tanzania, and Angola will likely be affected. Migratory birds and their annual migration
schedules are impacted by climate conditions, leading many birds to alter, shorten, or
even cancel their migration routes. Reports indicate that a quarter of Earth's species are at
risk of extinction by 2050. Recent studies project a sea level rise of 26 to 82 centimetres
by 2100, compared to 2007 estimates ranging from 18 to 59 centimetres by the same
year. The main causes of this rise in sea level are thermal expansion and ice melting.
Small island nations in Africa, such as Cape Verde, Comoros, Guinea-Bissau, Mauritius,
Sao Tome and Principe, Seychelles, and Madagascar, face exceptional threats due to their
frontline position, including increased extreme weather events, tropical and non-tropical
cyclones, rising air temperatures, and the alteration of rainfall patterns associated with
rising sea levels, a well-known threat in low-lying coastal areas of islands (UNEP, 2021).

Impact of Climate Change on Forced Displacement:

Climate change has emerged as a significant driver of migration, pushing increasing
numbers of people to move from vulnerable areas to regions more livable in their own
countries. Reports from the World Bank indicate that over 140 million people are
expected to migrate within their countries' borders by 2050, especially in South Asia,
Sub-Saharan Africa, and Latin America, due to drought, crop failure, rising sea levels,
and increased storms. The rising sea levels have also led to population migration, as seen
on Ghana's eastern coast after the Volta Dam's construction. Some studies predict the
displacement of 150 million people by 2050, known as climate refugees, due to drought,
flooding, or rising sea levels. Among other alarming figures is the projection that Africa
will host around 60 million internally displaced persons in the coming years due to water
scarcity. It is worth noting that six out of the ten largest cities in Africa are located on the
coast and are more vulnerable than others to the effects of climate change (Vahid et al.,
2022).

Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture:

There are direct effects on agricultural crop productivity and the weakening of livestock,
making them more susceptible to diseases. There are also indirect effects on pastoral
areas and water supplies for drinking, causing new pests that threaten agricultural
production and livestock to emerge. Climate change also impacts animal products such as
milk and meat. Approximately one million pastoralists in the Sahel region are affected by
climate variability. Reduced rainfall can lead to the drying up of some seasonal
waterways, decreasing fish quantities. Climate change will adversely affect nine major
crops, leading to a significant increase in prices. Global corn production is expected to
decrease by 12%, causing a 90% price increase. Rice production will decrease by 23%,
with prices increasing by 89%. Similarly, wheat production will face a 13% shortage,
leading to a 75% price increase. Some other crops will experience an 8% reduction, with
prices increasing by 83%. A report from the FAO highlights the extreme consequences of
rising temperatures and increased weather variability, leading to a decline in staple crop
yields, notably a 6.9% reduction in maise, a staple food for the continent's population
(IPCC, 2021), alongside the escalating risk of food insecurity.

Climate Change and Human Health:

The rise in temperatures in India, reaching 47 degrees Celsius, led to the death of over
1,100 people in one week in 2015 due to heatwaves and severe drought. The geographical
distribution of diseases on Earth's surface can change due to rising temperatures.
Additionally, climate change may lead to the spread of new diseases, affecting humans,
animals, and even plants. Some diseases, such as malaria in the highlands of East Africa,
are spreading to new areas. In Egypt, high temperatures caused the death of nearly a
hundred people and the injury of others. Dust storms and dry winds like the Harmattan,
the Chamsin, and the Haboob, when frequent, contribute to an increase in eye and
respiratory diseases in countries affected, such as Niger, Egypt, and Sudan.

Climate Change and Tribal Conflicts:

Climate change has contributed to local, tribal, and even international conflicts,
especially with the spread of drought, limited grazing areas, and water scarcity, leading
pastoralists to migrate from their regions to other areas following their tribes or even their
countries in search of water and pasture for their herds. This led to the outbreak of
conflicts. The Jos Plateau in central Nigeria is a prime example of these conflicts, as well
as the open borders between the countries of the Sahel region and their neighbouring
countries to the south. In these areas, many African countries suffer from constant threats
due to the government's failure to protect farmers and artisans due to the scarcity of
resources resulting from climate change or the limited preventive measures against the
spread of a disease that may lead to the death of their animals or even threaten their lives
(Al-Tantawi, 2018).

Combating Climate Change:

Countries, organisations, and global entities are working to confront climate change
because it represents a significant obstacle to achieving human security and sustainable
development, especially in vulnerable regions. Confronting this phenomenon requires
collective efforts at both the local and international levels. Dealing with this serious issue
involves reducing greenhouse gas emissions and preserving the environment to prevent
deterioration, especially of natural plants, which constitute the main reservoir of carbon
dioxide. Emissions can be reduced by carbon pricing, ending fossil fuel subsidies,
increasing energy efficiency, promoting renewable energy, constructing low-carbon,
resilient cities, reducing emissions from crop cultivation, and expanding reforestation
efforts. The following paragraphs explain these points in more detail.

1- Ceasing the Use and Support of Fossil Fuels

Several countries, such as Japan, have already started implementing this policy to reduce
pollutants through emissions trading systems, and the number of countries adopting this
approach is increasing. Korea, for instance, recently established a carbon market in
January, while China, with seven experimental markets in cities and provinces, has
witnessed a significant reduction in emissions since 2014. Egypt and some other
countries have also been proactive in adopting clean energy.

2- Improving and Enhancing Urban Infrastructure in Cities

This is to accommodate the growing city population. Cities are expanding rapidly,
especially in the developing world, with nearly half of the world's population living in
urban centres today. Cities are expected to host two-thirds of the global population by
2050.

3- Increasing renewable clean energy such as solar, wind, and hydropower, with
advanced nations providing their technology.

The international community should reduce its reliance on wood as fuel, and societies
should cease deforestation. It is worth noting that around 1.2 billion people worldwide
lack electricity, and approximately 3 billion others rely on solid fuels like wood, plant
charcoal, and coal for cooking, contributing significantly to greenhouse gas emissions.

4- Selecting agricultural varieties that consider emissions reduction to adapt to

climate change and mitigate its effects

This also doubles the expenditure on agricultural research, particularly on producing and
developing drought-resistant and water-efficient varieties. Agroforestry acts as a carbon
sink, helping absorb carbon emissions. Forests serve as beneficial carbon sinks, storing
carbon in soil, trees, and leaves. Improving rice cultivation to reduce methane emissions,
enhancing fertiliser efficiency, and managing agricultural land can also sequester carbon.
Strategies include using crop residues, low- or no-till farming, rehabilitating irrigation
systems and wells, and reclaiming degraded land fertility.
5- International and regional cooperation in developing an urgent plan

This is to address and adapt to climate change, focusing on climate studies, increasing
their support, enhancing drought prediction capabilities, providing information,
maximising the role of international institutions and organisations, raising environmental
awareness, reducing illiteracy rates among the population, and providing training courses
for farmers on how to deal with low rainfall years and sustainable resource utilisation.

6- In collaboration with the African Union and international organisations, African

countries should assess each other's needs in confronting and adapting to climate change.
They should work to minimise losses and damages, implement the outcomes of the
Glasgow Climate Pact to keep the 1.5-degree Celsius target within reach and support the
efforts of developing countries to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change. In this
context, as the previous host of the Climate Summit, the United Kingdom pledged full
support to Egypt to achieve ambitious results during COP27. Despite the commitments
made at the Glasgow Summit 2020 to reduce carbon dioxide emissions enough to prevent
the planet's temperature from exceeding 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels,
Egypt is working diligently to implement these commitments. Exceeding the 1.5-degree
Celsius temperature increase, according to all scenarios, poses significant risks, including
a substantial rise in sea levels, severe droughts or floods, intense storms, and forest fires,
much worse than those currently experienced worldwide.

During the Sharm El Sheikh summit in November 2022, the seriousness of the world's
countries in implementing their commitments to reduce the use of fossil fuels and replace
them with clean energy such as wind and solar energy became evident. There were
efforts to install filters to purify emissions from factories and cars, commitment to green
economy practices, reforestation policies, and restoring forests to their previous states.
This is crucial because forests serve as a storage for the primary pollutant, carbon
dioxide, in the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Some advanced countries are
committed to initiating projects and providing clean technologies to developing nations,
facilitating technology transfer into clean energy.

Ninth: Desertification

Desertification is a synonym for the deterioration of land in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-
humid regions, leading to plant life and biodiversity loss. In other words, it is the
destruction of soil, rendering it barren and unsuitable for agriculture. Desertification
results in annual losses amounting to billions of dollars due to decreased agricultural
productivity. It contributes to igniting wildfires that affect natural vegetation, frequent
dust and sand storms, and dust dispersal by winds, reaching many cities worldwide. Dust
from the African deserts reaches Europe through trade winds and extends to the
American lands. Statistics indicate that the world loses over six million hectares of arable
land annually, and desertified areas globally cover nearly a quarter of the Earth's surface.
The number of people affected by drought and desertification is close to one-fifth of the
world's population (ABAHUSSAIN et al., 2002). The risks of desertification have
increased over the past century with the growing population in deserts, multiplying
margins several times, and expanding cultivated areas. The term "desertification" refers
to areas surrounding deserts and points to major food production areas in semi-arid and
sub-humid regions (IMAGAWA et al., 1997).

Desertification is defined as the decline or deterioration of land's biological productivity

resulting in semi-arid conditions. In other words, it is the degradation of productive lands'
fertility, whether pastures, rain-fed farms, or irrigated farms, making them less productive
or completely infertile. Desertification is also defined as environmental change at the
edges of deserts. It leads to a decrease in biological productivity, followed by a reduction
in plant biomass and, consequently, a decrease in the carrying capacity of pasturelands.
Desertification results in human-induced land degradation, depleting soil and energy
(Grainger, 1982). The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
defines desertification as the reduction or destruction of the biological potential of land,
which can ultimately lead to conditions similar to deserts. It is one aspect of widespread
environmental deterioration due to adverse climate fluctuations and excessive
exploitation (ODINGO, 1990). The total area of desertified land in the world is
approximately 46 million square kilometres, impacting the productivity of certain crops
and contributing to the spread of drought in many regions.

Drought differs from desertification; drought is temporary when rainfall drops below the
natural average, or available water is deficient, be it rain or flowing water. The definition
of drought is linked to water shortage as one of the essential natural resources. Various
terms define drought, such as the relationship between precipitation and evaporation. It
can also be expressed as the ratio of average evaporation divided by average rainfall, with
average evaporation estimated by dividing solar radiation by water evaporation energy. A
region is considered dry if the growing period ranges from 1-79 days and semi-dry if it
ranges from 75-199 days. Drylands cover approximately 43% of the Earth's surface (Gary
et al., 2005). Drought is not the cause of desertification but accelerates it.

The degradation of ecosystems is attributed to decreased rainfall rates in many areas.

Cases of desertification and their severity vary from one region to another depending on
the relationship between the natural environment and humans. The United Nations
classified desertification into four categories:

• Mild desertification: This is a slight degradation process in the soil and

vegetation, and this category does not affect its biological capacity.
• Moderate desertification: It contributes to a 10% decline in productivity.
• Severe desertification It increases erosion, causes vegetation to deteriorate by
50%, and causes harmful plants to spread.
 • Very severe desertification: This is characterised by the formation of dunes, the
movement of sand, the formation of gullies and valleys, and the salinisation of the
soil. This category has a significant impact on biological capacity.

Causes of Desertification:
The fundamental factors underlying desertification include both natural and
human-induced elements. Among the natural factors are climatic conditions and
recurring drought waves, coupled with human factors such as the excessive
exploitation of soil, plants, and water resources. Deforestation, overgrazing,
improper irrigation, and ploughing contribute to desertification.
The causes of desertification are manifested in population growth and increased
demand for food. Land degradation due to drought and overgrazing, resulting from
increased animal herds and decreased necessary pasture area, also contributes.
Forest removal for land reclamation for agriculture or fuel use, accelerated soil
erosion through water or wind, and the conversion of dryland farming systems to
irrigated farming with increased agricultural intensification, particularly for cash
crops, stress the land. Soil salinisation occurs due to increased irrigation and poor
drainage, widespread in Egypt and Tunisia (Grainger, 1982).
Soil salinity also results from poor drainage and subsequent increased soil
alkalinity. Mismanagement of surface and groundwater resources, soil pollution
due to excessive use of pesticides and inorganic fertilisers, and urban
encroachment on agricultural land, with large areas of fertile topsoil used for the
brick and construction industries, are additional factors. There is a relationship
between climate change and desertification through land degradation and
fluctuations in rainfall. Climate change may exacerbate desertification by altering
spatial and temporal patterns in temperature, rainfall, solar radiation, and wind.
Conversely, desertification can contribute to climate change by releasing carbon
dioxide from uprooted and dead plants.

Manifestations of Desertification: The

manifestations of desertification are diverse, with the most significant aspects including:

• Movement of the Sand Dunes:

Dunes move in the environments where they are formed. This movement leads to the
deterioration of vegetation cover and, consequently, soil degradation. Shifting dunes
disrupt the balance of plant life, impacting the soil.

• Soil Erosion:

Soil erosion occurs due to the displacement of the topsoil layer, which contains a
significant portion of essential nutrients for plant growth. This top layer helps plants
absorb and store water. When it erodes, plants suffer from dehydration and eventually
 die. Additionally, the encroachment of sand onto agricultural lands can transform them
into desert areas.

• Soil Salinity

Soil salinity results from the loss of essential nutrients. The depletion of nutrients,
coupled with the decrease in vegetation cover and its deterioration, contributes to the
degradation of soil quality. All these manifestations lead to the loss of soil productivity.

Desertification is considered one of the most serious problems globally, affecting the world in
general and the African continent in particular. Recognising its severity, the United Nations has
designated June 17th of each year as World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought.

Combatting Desertification:
There is now a more urgent need than ever to take decisive actions to mitigate the
impacts of desertification. Combatting desertification involves effective land
management through:

• Modern Irrigation Practices:

Implementation of modern irrigation techniques to ensure optimal
water usage in agriculture.
• Optimal Use of Agricultural Technology:
Adoption of state-of-the-art agricultural technology to enhance
productivity and minimise environmental impact.

• Avoiding Deep Ploughing:

Avoidance of deep ploughing to maintain soil structure and prevent
erosion. Terracing or creating steps can reduce the length of
sloping land.

• Wind Erosion Resistance:

Use of windbreaks to resist soil erosion caused by wind and efforts
to stabilise and reduce the movement of dunes, especially by
cultivating stabilising plants.

• Reclamation of Saline and Alkaline Land:

Reclamation of saline and alkaline land through improved drainage
systems and selecting appropriate irrigation methods. This
includes choosing plants that can tolerate the salinity of irrigation
water.

• Reducing Water Loss:

Implementing efficient irrigation practices will reduce water losses
through evaporation, leakage, and surface runoff.
 • Natural Pasture Maintenance:
Maintenance and improvement of natural pastures, along with
measures to reduce overgrazing.

• Forest Conservation:
Conservation of forests, avoiding deforestation for agriculture or
fuel, and promoting sustainable forestry practices.

Tenth: Sustainable Development

In 1987, the United Nations' World Commission on Environment and Development

released the report "Our Common Future," known as the Brundtland Report. This report
includes the definition of sustainable development, a term widely used today, referring to
development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs. It introduces two key concepts: the basic
needs of the world's poor, which should be prioritised, and the constraints imposed by
technology and social organisation on the environment's ability to meet current and future
needs.

Sustainable development is defined from an economic perspective as the optimal

management of natural resources. This involves maximising economic benefits while
preserving natural resources and their quality.

Using natural resources today should maintain real income in the future and maintain the
environmental dimensions of sustainable development. Sustainable development aims to
protect natural resources from irresponsible exploitation. It necessitates the use of
renewable natural resources in a manner that does not lead to their depletion, degradation,
or reduced benefits for future generations while maintaining a steady, efficient, or
unabated balance of resources like soil, groundwater, and biomass (Makhlouf & Ghanem,
2009).

Sustainable development is defined as development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. One of
the goals of sustainable development is to plan for a better and more sustainable future
for everyone. The United Nations General Assembly adopted the Sustainable
Development Goals (2015 to 2030) and explained how these goals are integrated and
indivisible to achieve sustainable development globally. The seventeen United Nations
General Assembly goals address global challenges, including poverty, inequality, climate
change, environmental degradation, peace, and justice.

Environmental Sustainability and Continuity:

The continuity of an environmental system is fundamentally tied to the elements of the
environment and their interactions. When these elements are harmonious and naturally
interacting, the environmental system remains balanced without disturbance. However,
due to human interventions and the evolution of activities driven by the continuous
increase in population and environmentally harmful industries, the sustainability of this
environmental system is threatened. Its continuity is significantly and rapidly affected.
Various phenomena and changes have emerged and continue to manifest widely due to
the non-constructive interaction between humans and their surroundings. These changes
are evident in altering the Earth's climate, geological composition, and biodiversity. All
these changes lead to the creation of a distorted and precarious ecological system at risk
of collapse.

Furthermore, some of these changes and negative phenomena may have limited impact in
the present but pose a threat to future generations. They are exacerbated over time by
increased natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and ice melting at the South
Pole. Clear evidence indicates that what was once considered a problem yesterday has
become a catastrophe today (Kezia, 2009).

Sustainable development is linked to the standard concept of sustainability, with

UNESCO distinguishing between the two concepts: sustainability is often seen as a long-
term goal (a more sustainable world). In contrast, sustainable development refers to
various processes and paths to achieving that goal. It is evident that the fate of humanity
is connected to biological balances and food chains within ecosystems. Any disruption to
these balances and chains directly impacts human life.

The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro resulted in the agenda for the 21st century, "Think
Globally, Act Locally." Local initiatives can support access to clean water through
sanitation programmes, address hunger through community food banks and gardens,
promote local recycling initiatives, and ensure all children receive quality education
through targeted support for girls, vulnerable children, and those with disabilities. In
2015, the United Nations and its 193 member states adopted the ambitious Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) - a 15-year plan addressing 17 interconnected global issues,
including poverty reduction, ending hunger, eliminating discrimination, and addressing
the long-term consequences of climate change. The goals and targets were set to inspire
action toward achieving a better and more sustainable future for everyone in transforming
our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Human well-being depends on
preserving the integrity of the ecosystems that provide a better life, and the following are
ways to achieve this (Enes and Turan, 2022):

1. Good Forest Management: For forests to maintain their productivity and unique
features, it is crucial to implement effective forest management practices. Proper
management of grazing lands involves preserving natural grasslands, preventing
deterioration, and establishing a system that allows for sustainable use.
 Implementing wise land management practices in agriculture is also essential for
achieving optimal yields while preserving soil fertility and the necessary
biological balances. This involves crop rotation in a balanced agricultural cycle,
soil enrichment, adding organic matter, and combating soil erosion.
2. Constructive Collaboration between Project Managers and Environmental
Scientists: Every project that impacts the environment should prioritise respect for
nature. Therefore, each project targeting environmental investment must be
thoroughly assessed by experts and a team of researchers in the fundamental
branches of the study of the natural environment. They collaborate to predict
expected changes when the project is implemented, working together to mitigate
potential negative impacts. The connection between experts and researchers
should be maintained to address emerging issues effectively (Kezia, 2009).

1. Developing Environmental Awareness:

Humanity needs modern social ethics related to environmental respect.

This can only be achieved through awareness that clarifies the human connection to the
environment and teaches humans their environmental rights, which are always met with duties
towards the environment. There are no rights without duties (Biswas and Mankherjee, 1999).

2. Environmental Scientific Research:

• Effective environmental scientific research is a key factor in combating environmental

degradation.
• Research inputs can be divided into the number of scientific research and the rate of
spending on it, whether relatively or absolutely.
• Environmental awareness research is increasing, with global research increasing by 6-7%
annually.
• However, spending on this type of research in the Arab region does not exceed 0.2% of
GDP, the lowest regional rate in the world.
• Global spending on environmental awareness research has reached 1.4%.
• As for research outputs, these can be evaluated by looking at the number of research
studies and the number of patents.
• The Arab world's share of research studies is low, and its contribution to patents is almost
negligible (Vahid et al., 2022).

Financing Environmental Programs:

• Efforts to finance environmental programmes and integrate the environment into national
development policies must come from governments.
• Conservation of the environment must be considered a requirement for sustainable
development.
• Government spending rates must be adjusted to indicate sustainable development
(Makhoul and Ghanem, 2009).
• The Great Green Wall of trees in ten African countries aims to reclaim 100 million
hectares of land by 2030.
• Local farmers play a role in adapting agricultural techniques that improve the land,
enhance its value, and increase yields.
• Efforts are underway in Niger to help farmers adapt to water scarcity through the use of
small-scale irrigation systems.
• Water scarcity is a characteristic of the African Sahel countries.
• Therefore, water management is needed to utilise it in sustainable development
processes.
• Integrating water resources development and management into the development process
in Africa can prevent conflicts over shared water resources and drinking water (Economic
Commission for Africa, 2012).
• The success of sustainable development - environmentally - requires good environmental
management of development projects.
• This includes integrating the axis of environmental conservation into these projects,
conducting continuous environmental assessments of development projects, having a
deterrent environmental law, working to establish institutions concerned with
environmental affairs, and spreading environmental awareness.
• There is a need to integrate environmental education into school curricula.
• Achieving the goal of sustainable development requires simultaneous progress in the
economic, human, environmental, and technological dimensions.
• In industrialised countries, sustainability requires continuous technological change to
reduce gas emissions and resource use per output unit.
• Technological improvement is important in balancing development goals with
environmental constraints.
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