When we speak about "Teacher Education", we mean the systematic, structured and

professional training that preservice teachers engage in to become professional

teachers (Perraton, 2015; Adjei-Boateng, 2016). The subject of Education Studies is
what they study. The main aim of the discipline of Education Studies is to develop an
understanding of how people both develop and learn during their lives. Through
Education Studies, we can study the nature of knowledge and, to do this, we encourage
you to adopt a critical and objective position to the fundamental question: "What is the
nature of knowledge?" Depending on the perspective you adopt and which ways of
knowing and understanding you choose, you might have a unique answer to that
question. Education Studies courses include an objective (as opposed to a subjective)
look at educational processes, the systems and approaches used, as well as the
cultural, societal, political and historical contexts within which those processes are
nested. Because our world is global now, it is even more important to do this.

Although education is central to Education Studies, that does not prevent us from
drawing on other disciplines as and when appropriate. For example, Psychology
students might concentrate on aspects of education about cognitive development in
Psychology. Education Studies students will focus on aspects of psychological theory
concerning the process of learning. Education Studies is relatively recent as a
professional discipline to be studied. However, although older disciplines such as
History, Sociology and Psychology are better developed, theoretically speaking,
Education Studies have broad parameters and have begun to establish a more formal
theoretical base (Davies & Hogarth, 2004).

Teaching as a social practice and different forms of learning

As you know, teaching is a social practice. Teaching as a social practice involves

parenting, being polite and learning more about your field of work. In the 21st century,
we have experienced a lot of dramatic changes. Teachers play a crucial role in shaping
the practice of teaching. Teaching as a practise is a complex, intellectually demanding
activity. To properly understand the nature of teaching practice, we must consider the
following five essential features of teaching:
1. The practice of teaching is purposive, in fact, the purposes of teaching largely define
the practice.

2. Any of many behaviours and activities may qualify as teaching.

3. Teaching is a rational enterprise, and this is, in part, tied to its purposive nature

4. Teaching is a communal, as opposed to an individual enterprise.

5. The practice of teaching has a strong moral dimension (D'Eon, Overgaard and
Harding 2000, 151-162).

Therefore, teaching by its nature is purposive. As teachers, we should always remember

that teaching is a purposive activity. Teachers should teach something to someone with
a purpose in mind. The purpose of the teaching activity is to get someone to learn
something, understand something, do something, appreciate something, and so on. In
this module, you are learning about educational studies and what it means to be a
teacher and other crucial aspects of educational studies.

According to (D'Eon, Overgaard and Harding 2000 151-162), examining teaching from
the context of a 'social practice' may provide us with fresh insights that will challenge
the accepted ways of seeing the world of teaching with important implications for
faculty development. First, we will look at what social practice is and then see how
teaching falls into that category.

A social practice needs to be understood in terms of purpose, context and a complex

array of norms. Social practice is, firstly, a form of activity that has grown out of
common needs in a community to accomplish certain purposes.

Secondly, a social practice involves shared and mutually understood ways of behaving
or acting.
 Thirdly, the patterns of action are guided by a complex array or norms that we might call
rules, standards, principles, precepts and unwritten policies.

These norms have authority (people comply willingly) and they are created and
recreated in and through the interactions of those involved in the practice. The norms
provide reasons for the actions or behaviours of individuals. As in etiquette, using
particular forms of address, handshaking and removing or wearing particular headwear
are the behaviours that constitute the practice.

To understand this section in-depth, refer to the professionalisation of teaching.

1.2.2. What is learning?

Learning occurs in different ways and many authors have defined learning differently.
Some of the authors discuss learning as if it is a linear process and forget the interest
and intentions of the learner. In this section, we will try and limit ourselves to learning
that occurs in the classroom. There are different types of learning, namely formal, non-
formal, informal and lifelong learning. UNESCO (2009:27) defines formal, non-formal
and informal learning as follows:

1.2.2.a. Formal learning

Formal learning occurs as a result of experiences in education or training institutions,

with structured learning objectives, learning time and support which leads to
certification. Formal learning is intentional from the learner's perspective (Benavot and
Lockhart, 2016: 55)

According to Rogers (2014:16), formal education is not only intentionally on the part of
the learner, but it is also internal on the part of the teacher.

"Formal learning takes place in education and training institutions, is recognised by

relevant national authorities, and leads to diplomas and qualifications. Formal learning
is structured according to educational arrangements such as curricula, qualifications
and teaching-learning requirements" (Singh, 2012:11).

A good example of formal learning is the type of learning that you are engaged with in
the EDSS3701 module. It has been planned by the lecturer and the teaching staff, and
as a student, you made an intentional decision to register for this module.

1.2.2.b. Non-formal learning

Non-formal learning is not provided by an education or training institution and typically

does not lead to certification. It is structured in terms of learning objectives, time or
support. Non-formal learning is intentional for the learners' (UNESCO 2016)
perspective.

An example of non-formal learning is attending a workshop about gender-based

violence. The workshop presenter will set learning objectives and time for the
presentation and provide support during the workshop; however, it does not mean that
the knowledge that you have gained there can lead to certification. The person who
decides to attend this workshop will make an intentional decision to attend. However,
you can be given a certificate to acknowledge that you attended the workshop.

Non-formal learning can also be "structured according to educational and training

arrangements but more flexible. It usually takes place in community-based settings, the
workplace and through the activities of civil society organisations" (Singh, 2012:11).

1.2.2.c. Informal learning

Informal learning occurs in daily life, in the family, in the workplace, in communities and
through the interests and activities of individuals (Singh, 2012:11).

Informal learning can be intentional (UNESCO 2016) but, in most cases, it happens by
chance.
 For example: In class you overhear your two teachers discussing how they treat burn
wounds of their children at home before taking them to the hospital. As a listener, you
will learn about other remedies you can use to heal wounds without relying on a
medical doctor. We also learn a lot of things from different people that we meet in
informal and formal gatherings.

There are other different types of informal learning that you also practice without you
being fully aware, including self-directed learning, auto-didactic and intentional
activities designed for self-learning (Rogers 2014:18). This module includes many
exercises that promote self-learning.

1.2.2.d. Self-directed learning:

A learning strategy that allows learners to take charge of their own learning process
(diagnosis learning needs, identify learning goals, select learning strategies, and
evaluate learning performances and outcomes ([Link]
[Link]/dictionary/self-directed-learning/26210).

Tekkol and Demirel (2018:2) explain that self-directed learners have the following
characteristics:

They set clear goals for themselves.

They shape their learning process in line with goals and plans.

They monitor their own learning process.

They evaluate the outcomes of their own learning.

They are autonomous.

They are self-motivated.

They are open to learning.

They are curious.

They are willing to learn.

They value learning.

 They have self-control.

They take initiative to learn

1.2.2.e. Incidental learning:

Incidental learning occurs when you are engaged in other tasks. For example, in this
lesson/module we expect you to journal your AHA moments.

[Link]. Lifelong learning

Morgan-Klein and Osborne (2007:157) define a lifelong learner as strongly aware of the
relationship between learning and real life, and as someone who recognises the need
for lifelong learning, is highly motivated to engage in the process and has the necessary
confidence and learning skills. A lifelong learner can also be described as an individual
who is active in his or her learning and who is interested in acquiring as many skills as
possible. Lifelong learners do not believe in working for the same company for a very
long period. They aim to become marketable and in demand in the labour market.

1.3 The importance of Education Studies

The importance of Education Studies relates to the fact that teaching is a
profession. A profession is understood as an occupation that performs a crucial
social function or service, and (most importantly) requires a considerable degree of
skill and competence because of the use of specialised knowledge. Although
teaching has only gradually become professionalised (turning the activity into a
profession) it has some hurdles to overcome in South Africa (Spaull, 2013).
Professionals have a well-established, well-tested body of specialised knowledge.
To acquire this body of knowledge and skill, they need to complete a lengthy period
of higher education. Along with the body of knowledge acquired, professionals
exhibit professional competence, which they exercise in situations that are not
wholly routine. They cannot simply fall back on recipe-type knowledge or simple
'right or wrong' judgements. There is also the matter of professional responsibility,
which a professional comes to understand by being educated and socialised to
professional values. Professionals focus on their clients' interests, not on self-
serving economic profit or kowtowing to political forces. Society expects
professionals to make decisions that involve considerable risk and take a high
degree of responsibility for those decisions in the interests of their clients – in this
case, learners are the 'clients'. Professional values are captured in an ethical code
of conduct to which all registered and licenced members of a profession are bound
to adhere.

Other professions (such as medicine, engineering and architecture) have sound,

well-founded disciplines to support their professionals and are clear that they are
not part of a trade. The profession of teaching has become involved in trade union
matters. For many professionals, this is a serious ethical dilemma. The efforts to
focus on Continuing Professional Development (CPD) might help.

Another point about the importance of Education Studies as a valid discipline in

turning out professionals is that practitioners use professional autonomy when
making judgements. The complexity and risks involved in teaching mean that
professionals need considerable personal freedom or autonomy to make
judgements because they have to draw on knowledge-based skills and values-
based decision making, often in non-routine situations. This autonomy comes with
accountability as the other side of the coin. In exchange for professional autonomy,
the controlling body of the profession assures society that its members are
competent, responsible and accountable. This is a continuing problem in South
Africa. The controlling body of a profession ensures professional control over
the credentials of its members and their entry into the profession, along with a high
degree of accountability through published codes of conduct, disciplinary
committees and audits. However, this autonomy is not a 'reward' bestowed on a
profession by a grateful public but a hard-won right acquired over a lengthy period,
which is always open to challenge from members of society. A more balanced view
of what a profession demands of its actors is that of becoming more professional,
that is ethical, accountable, well-behaved, having integrity and honesty. Thus,
'professionalism' refers to both professionalisation and professional development.
In the case of professionalisation, it is the members of the profession who want
public and legal recognition of the occupation's full professional status, which
usually involves working to establish a self-governing body. Numerous professional
bodies exist in South Africa and around the world; for example, The Health
Professions Council of South Africa, the Bar Association (for lawyers) and the
South African Council of Educators. Such bodies are supposed to help to
strengthen the credential boundaries of the profession so that it is not easy for
unqualified or incompetent people to enter.

Given the need to assure the public of professionals' specialised knowledge and
good service, there are valid reasons for setting out these goals. Over time,
professionalisation leads professionals to develop a market for their services,
define who is competent to provide those services, restrict their numbers by
imposing ever-higher entrance qualification requirements, and achieve the
exclusive legal right to supply those services (Hoyle & John, 1995). By these
means, they assure themselves of job security, social prestige and the ability to
command higher salary levels.

Professional development among teachers is designed to develop their skills,

values and practice, so that the quality of their service to the public, in their
occupation as teachers, is the best. Through professional development, teachers
are encouraged to be serious about the responsibilities they assume as members
of the teaching profession. There is an urgent need amongst South African
teachers to work towards this goal.

1.4 Historical perspectives in Education Studies

We have already mentioned several facts about teacher training history, but a quick
review of the historical perspective might answer some of the questions being raised in
21st-century debates unfolding across South Africa. The inclusion of Education Studies
as a discipline is a fairly recent development at universities. In the early years, university
experts were expected to offer the latest theories on education (often considered too
abstract and thus irrelevant to ''real'' school) or to provide training and coaching in "best
practices" to be applied immediately in classrooms. In the past, Education Studies as
part of teacher training at training colleges divided the study into discrete parts
(sociology, psychology, philosophy and history of education). As early as just after the
Second World War (1939–1945) there was a need in Western countries to train high-
quality teachers, which resulted in colleges of education lengthening their training
periods.

By 1963, there was a move to develop teaching degrees at universities. University

places were made available to those who were qualified for them by ability and
attainment. The theoretical and practical study of education arose out of sociology,
psychology, philosophy and the history of education. Early teacher training programmes
focused more on the subjects being taught, the teaching practice itself, and,
particularly, aspects of classroom management and control (Kiggundu & Nayimuli,
2009). In an effort to make the theoretical and academic study of education more
relevant to the needs of student teachers, many programmes began following a more
integrated approach. This involved the development of what became known as
curriculum, professional or even educational studies. In the 1970s and 1980s, the
theoretical study of education as part of teacher training courses was scorned and
criticised for being too removed from the classroom. Critics pointed out that the
practical nature of teaching was more important, while also promoting progressive
ideologies of education. Then, in the 1980s, things changed again with the emphasis
shifting to training. New programmes gradually appeared and Education Studies
(Bartlett & Burton, 2006) was born, being associated more with student enrolment and
the use of modular degree programmes. Modularity enabled students to be more
flexible in their choice of subjects. The massification of universities in the 21st century
has had the effect that many thousands of prospective teachers are enrolling at
institutions of higher learning across South Africa (Mohamedbhai, 2014).

Philosophical, sociological and psychological foundation of the curriculum

In the next section, we will discuss how theory informs teaching.

 Teaching is informed by theory. As a teacher, it is important to understand the theory
that you are using in your teaching. It is also important to know that there is a lot of
debate about theories and the types of theories that social sciences can use. As a
teacher, you are encouraged to read the different theories and critique them where
necessary. This section will highlight the theories that are important in teaching and
learning.

According to Creswell (2013:85), a theory is "an explanation of something". According to

Chambliss and Schutt (2019:22), a theory is a "logically interrelated set of propositions
about empirical reality". In other words, for teachers to have meaningful teaching, they
must have a theory that informs their teaching. In this module, you are learning mainly
online. The theories that inform the teaching and learning processes are Community of
Practice (CoP) by Wegner (2004) and Community of Inquiry Theory (CIT) by Garrison,
Anderson and Archer (2000). These theories are important when teaching in online
distance education institutions like Unisa because these theories collapse the walls,
the distance and the delayed communication between the lecturers/teaching staff, the
students and the teaching material. Both theories indicate that students at distance
education institutions work better with their peers/ classmates.

The CIT theory talks about the three presences that should take place for teaching and
learning to be a success in an Open Distance eLearning (ODeL) environment.

ODeL is a different way of learning... there is a physical distance between you and your
university. For most of us, this means that our previous learning experiences will not
have prepared us for the Unisa study journey. In open distance e-learning, YOU are
responsible for planning your studies and managing your time effectively. You don’t
attend daily lectures. You learn from a distance and you connect to the university
mostly via the internet. If you completed your previous qualifications at a residential
institution, it is especially important that you think about the adjustments you need to
make to be a successful Unisa student.
To read more about ODEel environment click the link below:

[Link]
qualifications/ODL-and-Unisa/ODL-is-a-different-way-of-learning

These presences are the teaching presence, social presence, and cognitive presence.
The CIT theory encourages engagement and collaboration among the students; it
encourages the students to engage with each other, engage with the teaching staff and
engage with the learning content. Both theories promote collaboration. In the
discussion forums, we all (lecturers/teaching staff and students) construct knowledge
and we learn together from each other. According to Garrison, Anderson and Archer
(2000), when students work together online, they have dialogues with each other. Also,
students can dialogue with the content that they have to learn as mentioned above.

The above paragraph is an explanation, or an interrelated explanation based on

empirical evidence of how students learn in an ODL environment.

In this module, you will also learn about other theories that you are expected to know as
teachers.

Education Studies in a real world and

approaches used to teach education
studies
1.6 Education Studies in a real world

Although it is clear that to be certified as a teacher you have to take certain

required steps, it is anything but clear how you learn to become a teacher. A good
question to ask is to what extent coursework and experience in the field aid in the
process of becoming a teacher. Learning to teach is a cultural (rather than a
political or policy-driven) problem. Most adults in South Africa have been at school
and have ideas about learning and teaching but as Russell and Loughran
(2007:217) state,

... teaching looks easy and is widely regarded as easy, the image of teaching as
transmission and the perspective of technical rationality mask the many ways in
which challenging and engaging teaching represents a highly disciplined view [of
teaching and learning].

There are claims from scholars in Education Studies (amongst them Darling-
Hammond, 2006:34–35) that teaching may be even more complex than Law,
Medicine or Engineering. A teacher does not serve one client at a time, he or she
works with groups ranging from about 25 to 50 at once, with each child having
unique needs and proclivities. Teachers must balance these variables, along with a
multitude of sometimes competing goals and negotiate the demands of the
content matter along with individual and group needs. They must draw on many
kinds of knowledge – of learning and development, social contexts and culture,
language and expression, curriculum and teaching – and integrate what they know
to create engaging tasks and solve learning problems for a range of students who
learn differently.

Darling-Hammond (2006:35–40) identify three major problems in learning to

teach, namely problems related to the "apprenticeship of observation", enactment
and complexity. An apprenticeship of observation refers to the fact that preservice
teachers come into Education Studies after spending perhaps more than 12 years
as learners in schools. They have opinions on what the characteristics of good
teaching are but these ideas are usually tacit and quite subjective, often not
thought through. Teachers who are learning to teach often find it difficult to act
according to the theories learned at university level. Robinson (2016) notes that,
historically, there has been resistance from many practising teachers to the view
that theoretical knowledge of educational principles makes any significant
contribution to classroom practice. However, teaching is complex, as the teacher
has to respond at the same time to multiple, competing contextual factors in a
relationship involving the learners, the subject matter and themselves. The
underlying complexities of the teaching profession cannot be solved and
approached from what teachers absorbed tacitly in school. These prior
assumptions need to be brought to consciousness, examined, challenged and
reworked. This calls for Education Studies to be structured carefully, teaching
practice to be of sufficient length, mentors to be available and (most importantly)
for teachers to reflect on their practice.

In the introduction to this section, we asked: "What is knowledge?" You can

begin to answer that question by realising that diverse views on learning, student
motivation and their implications for teaching all depend on what you believe
knowledge to be.

In Education Studies, as the teachers of teachers, we have adopted the theory of

social constructivism to support our way of teaching at a distance through e-
learning. Our view of knowledgeis thus that it is constructed within social contexts
(networks) through interactions with a knowledge community (we as the academic
community and you as part of a community of learners). Our view of learning is
that there needs to be an integration of students into a knowledge community to
achieve collaborative assimilation and the accommodation of new information. By
adopting the social constructivist model for our teaching, our view of motivation is
that it is both intrinsic and extrinsic: learning goals and motives are determined in
collaboration with learners, while extrinsic rewards are provided by the knowledge
community. The implication this has for ourteaching is that we encourage
collaborative learning, which is facilitated and guided by us as lecturers and by the
e-tutors, which is why we insist on group work.
1.7 The approaches used in teaching Education
Studies

Approaches to the teaching of Education Studies are very diverse. We use e-

learning as our primary method of delivering tuition (Brenton, 2009:85–97) and
speak about 'learning with blended pedagogies' (Oliver & Trigwell, 2005). The focus
nowadays in respect of teaching teachers, is on turning out not only competent
teachers but also moulding them into particular kinds of people. The ideal teacher
to emerge from a teacher programme in Education Studies would be a lifelong
student. Other ideals are that a teacher would show concern for learners not only
as a group but as individuals; see how teaching fits into the bigger socioeconomic
picture; participate in community concerns; engage in self-reflection and self-
evaluation; experiment and take calculated risks in the interests of more vital
learning; and identify him/herself as an agent – someone who can make a
difference, rather than just being a civil servant who is bound by bureaucratic
requirements (Adendorff et al., 2010).

To turn out teachers who fit this description, serious thought must go into the
different approaches used in teaching Education Studies. Unfortunately, many
academics teach students without having enough formal knowledge of how
students learn. Lecturers might know how they themselves learn best but do not
necessarily consider how their students learn, or whether the way they teach will
enable learning to take place. Learning is about how we perceive and understand
the world, about making meaning. It may in addition involve mastering abstract
principles; understanding proof/evidence; remembering information; acquiring
methods, techniques and approaches; recognising, reasoning or debating ideas;
and developing behaviour that is appropriate to specific situations. Still, other
aspects of learning relate to students as people who are diverse in all respects, are
always changing, and learn differently (and not equally readily, when it comes to
different types of material). Students bring different backgrounds and expectations
to learning (Gokalp, 2013).

When you teach, you will adopt (perhaps without realising it) a particular theory
of teaching and learning. Your teachers have done the same in teaching you to
become teachers.

Below are theories that underpin education.

1.7.1 Behaviourism theory

Behaviourist approaches were widely used in South Africa and the rest of the
world until the 1990s. Sadly, in South Africa, they have continued into the present,
where they still affect learning outcomes seriously. Behaviourism as a theory of
learning was but one step in a lengthy process and, without its theorising, many
scholars could not have moved on to a social constructivist position.

Zhou and Brown (2015:6) explain behaviourism as being primarily concerned

with the observable and measurable aspects of human behaviour. In defining
behaviour, behaviourist learning theories emphasise changes in behaviour that
result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner. John B. Watson
(1878–1958) and B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) are the two principal originators of
behaviourist approaches to learning. Watson believed that human behaviour
resulted from specific stimuli that elicited certain responses. Watson's basic
premise was that conclusions about human development should be based on
observation of overt behaviour rather than speculation about subconscious
motives or latent cognitive processes (Shaffer, 2000).
 Watson's view of learning was based, in part, on the studies of Ivan Pavlov
(1849–1936), who was well-known for his research on a learning process called
classical conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to learning that occurs when a
neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a
behaviour. Skinner believed that seemingly spontaneous action is regulated
through reward and punishment. He also believed that people do not shape the
world but are instead shaped by the world. Skinner viewed human behaviour as
predictable, much like a chemical reaction. He is well-known for his "Skinner box" –
a tool used to demonstrate his theory that rewarded behaviour is repeated. (To
understand behaviourism in more detail, we discuss it in section 2.2.1.)

The behaviourist perspective explains that learning is the transmission of

information from teacher to learner and it is essentially the transmission of the
response appropriate to a certain stimulus. Thus, the point of education is to
present the student with the appropriate repertoire of behavioural responses to
specific stimuli and to reinforce those responses through an effective
reinforcement schedule (Skinner, 1976:161).

1.7.2 Constructivism theory

"Constructivism is a philosophy of learning based on the premise that

knowledge is constructed by the individual through his or her interactions with the
environment"(Rovai, 2004:80). According to (Mascolo & Fischer, 2005),
constructivism is a learning theory that holds that knowledge is best gained
through a process of reflection and active construction in the mind. Constructivist
theories of one type or another are regularly cited to explain the complex act of
human learning. The idea of constructivist learning can be explained as the
continuous building and amending of previous structures or schemataas new
experiences, actions and knowledge are assimilated and accommodated by the
learner (Zhou & Brown, 2015).
 The schemata are responsible for the continuous building and amending of
structures in the mind. "Unless schemata are changed, learning will not occur.
Learning (whether in cognitive, affective, interpersonal or psychomotor domains) is
said to involve a process of individualtransformation" (Fry, Ketteridge and Marshall,
2009:10). The philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) believed experience leads
to the formation of general conceptions or constructs that are models of reality.

Next, we focus on Jerome Bruner (1915-2016), the American psychologist who

influenced how we think and teach in schools. Bruner's ideas about inducting
students into the modes of thinking in individual disciplines, and revisiting
knowledge at ever-higher levels of understanding (leading to the idea of a spiral
curriculum), have been influential. For instance, Bruner is often cited as the
inspiration for changing the focus of History teaching in schools, shifting the
balance from the regurgitation of factual information to comprehension. One way
to do this is by encouraging learners to understand how the past is reconstructed
and understood; for example, by learning how to empathise with others and work
from primary sources. Most current ideas about learning (including experiential
learning, the use of reflection, and so on) are based on
constructivism. Constructivism tells us that we learn by fitting new understanding
and knowledge into, or extending and supplanting, old understanding and
knowledge (Fry et tivistal., 2009).

[Link]. How does a learner construct knowledge?

 The learner uses the information that is being taught and his/her past
experiences, personal views and cultural background to construct an
interpretation.

Thus, people actively construct their knowledge (Biggs & Moore, 1993).
However, to come to a constructivist theory of learning, much research was needed
to understand human biology, psychology and cognition. Many researchers did the
groundwork. One such important person was Jean Piaget (1896–1980), who
identified the child's four stages of mental growth. In the Sensorimotor Stage,
occurring from birth to age 2, the child is concerned with gaining motor control and
learning about physical objects. In the Preoperational Stage, from ages 2 to 7, the
child is preoccupied with verbal skills. At this point, the child can name objects and
reason intuitively. In the Concrete Operational Stage, from ages 7 to 11, the child
begins to deal with abstract concepts such as numbers and relationships. Finally,
in the Formal Operational Stage, ages from adolescence to adulthood, the child
begins to reason logically and systematically. Among Piaget's many books are The
Language and Thought of the Child (1926), Judgment and Reasoning in the
Child (1928), The Origin of Intelligence in Children (1954), The Early Growth of Logic
in the Child (1964), and Science of Education and the Psychology of the Child (1970)
(Zhou & Brown, 2015).

1.7.3 Social constructivism theory

The ideas of Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) had a fundamental influence on

education. His Social Development Theory only became known in the West in 1962
when it was translated from Russian. For Vygotsky, "social interaction", "the more
knowledgeable other" and "the zone of proximal development" were key ideas that
have remained part of the constructivist discourse. Vygotsky's work explains in
detail how the social aspects of acquiring knowledge occur to individual learners.
He suggests that one learns best through interacting with others. Through the
process of working with others, learners create an environment of shared
meanings with peers. By being immersed in the new environment, the learner can
adapt subjective interpretations to become socially accepted. Vygotsky further
argues that culture plays a large role in cognitive development. Vygotsky believed
that infants were born with basic abilities to develop cognitively. Those basic
abilities are then enhanced through interaction with others, and they eventually
grow into more sophisticated mental processes.

Social constructivism theory acknowledges that the learner has to interpret and
construct the new knowledge based on past experiences, cultural background and
personal views Next, the learner has to reflect on the new knowledge.

As a teacher when using the constructivism theory, you are encouraged to use
the facilitation style of teaching, not lecturing. Learners should be supported in
their learning so that they become actively involved in their own learning. By its
nature, the constructivism theory is learner centred because focuses on the learner
and not the teacher and the content to be learned.

Table 1.2 summarises the theories underpinning education. Under each major
category of theory – behaviourism, cognitive constructivism and social
constructivism – there are four important points to consider, namely "What view of
knowledge do the proponents of the theory take?", "What is their view of learning?",
"What is their view of motivation?" and the final (and most important point), "What
are the implications for teaching?"

Table 1.2: Overview of learning theories

Social
Behaviourism Cognitive constructivism
constructivism
View of Knowledge is a Knowledge systems of Knowledge is
knowledge repertoire of cognitive structures are actively constructed within
behavioural constructed by learners, based social contexts through
responses to on pre-existing cognitive interactions with a
structures knowledge community
 environmental
stimuli
View of Passive Active assimilation and Integration of
learning absorption of a accommodation of new students into a
predefined body information into existing knowledge community
of knowledge by cognitive structures
Collaborative
the learner
Discovery by learners is assimilation and
Promoted by emphasised accommodation of new
repetition and information
positive
reinforcement
View of Extrinsic, Intrinsic; learners set their Intrinsic and
motivation involving positive own goals and motivate extrinsic; learning goals
and negative themselves to learn and motives are
reinforcement determined both by
learners and extrinsic
rewards provided by the
knowledge community
Implications Correct The teacher facilitates Collaborative
for teaching behavioural learning by providing an learning is facilitated
responses are environment that promotes and guided by the
transmitted by the discovery and teacher
teacher and assimilation/accommodation
absorbed by the
students
Group work is
encouraged

Source: [Link]
learning-overview/
Adult learning and other important types of learning

Perhaps adult learning differs from the learning we do during any other stage of life.
Experts are still not clear on the matter. Despite this, some propositions concerning
adult learning have influenced higher education. This has at a minimum, compelled
higher education lecturers or educators to re-examine their premises and adjust some
of their views. In this domain, Malcolm Knowles (1913–1997) is associated with the term
"andragogy" (despite its much earlier aetiology). His most quoted definition of
andragogy is that it is the "art and science of helping adults learn" (Knowles, 1984).
Knowles changed the definition of the term during the span of his working life but there
are five basic principles of andragogy:

As a person matures, he/she becomes more self-directed.

Adults have accumulated experiences that can be a rich resource for learning.

Adults become ready to learn when they experience a need to know something.

Adults tend to be less subject centred than children but increasingly problem centred.

For adults, the most potent motivators are internal.

There is a lack of empirical evidence to support these views. Despite much criticism of
andragogy and problems with its definition (Davenport, 1993), it has had a considerable
influence on the way adults are taught. Other types of learning are influenced by adult
learning: many 'types' of learning used and debated in higher education (e.g.,
experiential learning, student autonomy in learning, self-directed learning) arose out of
ideas related to adult learning. Fry et al. (2009) point out that the spinoffs from these
ideas relate to the student experience, supporting students and widening participation
(in the sense of removing barriers to entry and progression).

1.7.5 Experiential learning

Experience from life, education and work plays a pivotal role in the process of learning.
This perspective on learning is called "experiential learning" or "learning by doing".
Probably the most popular theory of learning from experience can be attributed to David
Kolb (b. 1939), who developed ideas from other models of experiential learning, based
on the notion that understanding is not a fixed or unchangeable element of thought but
is formed and re-formed through experience. It is thus a continuous process, which is
often represented as cyclical. Because learning is based on experience, it must follow
that we all bring our own ideas and beliefs to learning situations in differing ways.
However, learning requires four kinds of abilities, to be successful: concrete experience
(CE); reflective observation (RO); abstract conceptualisation (AC) and active
experimentation (AE). Put another way, learning progresses from concrete experience
(feeling) to observations and reflection (watching), to abstract conceptualisation
(thinking) and then to active experimentation (doing). From experiential learning, other
learning theories have emerged, such as work-based learning and placement learning,
teaching laboratory and practical work, action learning, role play and many types of
small group teaching.

Thus, the experiential cycle does not simply involve doing but also reflecting,
processing, thinking and furthering understanding (see figure 1.2). By extension, this
cyclical process has a part to play in even the most abstract and theoretical disciplines,
where the academic is concerned with helping the learner acquire the 'tools of the
trade' or modes of thinking, which are central to the discipline, such as in philosophy or
literary criticism. All four stages of the process are necessary for effective learning to be
achieved. Kolb (1976) suggests that learners develop different learning styles that
emphasise their preference for certain modes of learning over others, and that this
identifies their learning characteristics.

Learn more about Kolb's learning cycle at [Link]

learning-style-e56162c48d43.

The academics responsible for Education Studies try to create learning opportunities
that are sensitive to these different styles of learning. An individual's preferred learning
style may have some relation to the particular disciplinary framework in which the
learning is taking place. Becher (1989) brings together the work of two principal authors
under the title of the 'Biglan-Kolb classification of academic knowledge'. This
classification seems to suggest that a preferred learning style might be attributable to a
relationship with a particular disciplinary framework.
Table 1.3: Biglan-Kolb classification of academic disciplines

Abstract-Reflective (hard pure)

Natural Sciences

Mathematics

Abstract (hard applied)

Science-based professions

(Engineering)

Concrete-Reflective (soft pure)

Humanities

Social Sciences

Concrete-Active (soft applied)

Social professions (Education, Social Work, Law)

Source: Van Lill (2019)

According to Van Lill (2019), there are five disciplinary differences: a) knowledge
structures/intellectual organisations; b) the phenomena studied (restricted or
unrestricted); c) paradigm/consensus development; d) methods of inquiry and e) the
goals of the research. Accepting this classification implies that the encouragement
learners receive in the different elements of the learning cycle must be taken into
account when planning experiential learning opportunities in different disciplines.

Reflection and reflective practice are not easy concepts for lecturers in higher
education to put into practice, either in their own professional development or the
learning of their students. Developmental support is often necessary. Donald Schön
(1930–1997), in examining the relationship between professional knowledge and
professional competence, suggests that rather than looking to another body of research
knowledge, practitioners should become more adept at observing and learning by
reflecting on the craft and artistry of their own particular profession. Reflecting on
practice (experience) is central to the development of professions for two reasons: a)
recognised 'experts' in the field exhibit distinct artistry, and b) this artistry cannot be
learned through conventional teaching models – it requires the observation of
competent practitioners, experience in carrying out all the tasks of one's job, and
reflection on that practice. Such reflective practice is likely to follow Kolb's pattern of
cyclical conceptualisation and reconceptualisation as part of a continuous process
(refer to figure 1.2).

1.8 The different roles of education practitioners in Education Studies

The profession of the teacher educator essentially differs from that of the teacher
(Murray & Male, 2005). A teacher educator is not a primary- or secondary-school
teacher but a higher education lecturer – someone who requires a solid academic
knowledge base. When working in higher education, it soon becomes clear that the
professions of teacher and teacher educator are distinctly different (Lunenberg,
Dengerink & Korthagen, 2014). For Bullock and Ritter (2011), an important consideration
is the implicit and explicit expectations that institutions have of teacher education, as
well as their own reflections on their competencies as teachers of teachers. Murray and
Male (2005), who focus on the process of becoming a teacher educator, identify the
following as important: developing a personal pedagogy of teacher education, working
in a higher education context, adhering to the research requirements of the institution,
and developing an inquiry-based attitude.

Lunenberg and Hamilton (2008), who conducted a study of their own professional
development as teacher educators, concluded that the influence of one's personal
history on the way the profession is practised seems greater than in other professions.
These researchers were struck by the need to be role models for the teachers they were
educating, and that included modelling reflective practice. Thus, they had become
knowledge producers, not knowledge consumers (as they had been at school).
Swennen, Jones and Volman (2010) distinguish three sub-identities for teacher
educators: the teacher in higher education, the teacher of teachers, and the researcher.
Modelling, theoretically underpinning this modelling, and studying one's own practice
are stimulating aspects of the professional development of teacher educators.

Lunenberg et al. (2014) emphasise the teacher educator's crucial role as a coach or
mentor who has to stimulate the learning process of the student teacher. They note that
the teacher educator has duties as a curriculum developer but also as a gatekeeper
who allows or denies aspiring teachers entry to the profession. When teacher educators
have been schoolteachers themselves, they bring several benefits to their higher
education role. Entry-level teachers take with them their educators' teaching
experience, their ability to communicate and engage students, their sensitivity to group
dynamics, their knowledge of how to create a safe and stimulating learning environment
in the classroom, and their skill in motivating students and supporting reflection.
Newcomer teachers also have examples of their educators' flexibility and organisational
skills to fall back on (Van Velzen, Van der Klink, Swennen & Yaffe, 2010). Additionally,
thanks to teacher educators, they possess specific content knowledge of subject
disciplines (Greensfeld & Elkad-Lehman, 2007).

Crucial factors for the role of teachers and the quality of their behaviour within this role
can be categorised as second-order teaching, the promotion of self-regulated learning
and explicit modelling, as these deal with tensions and dilemmas (Lunenberg et al.,
2014). Most of these factors require a specific pedagogy of teacher education that is
rooted in constructivism (Korthagen & Kessels, 1999; Korthagen, Loughran & Russell,
2006). From the perspective of constructivism, themes such as promoting active and
self-regulated learning in students, modelling, and making pedagogical behaviour
explicit (including in dealing with tensions) are important aspects of the role of a
teacher of teachers (Loughran & Berry, 2005; Berry, 2009).
 Regarding teacher educators being involved in second-order teaching, they must be
able to work with adult learners in higher education and articulate tacit knowledge and
underlying theory (Lunenberg, Dengerink & Korthagen, 2014). In their promotion of
active learning, they need vision and the ability to promote self-regulated learning
(Tillema & Kremer-Hayon, 2002). Teacher educators stress the need to motivate and
stimulate students, whereas students often indicate a need for support and voice their
fears of becoming isolated learners where self-regulated learning applies as they might
not have enough opportunities for cooperative learning. These concerns may be
justified in that self-regulated learning requires skills in self-management and goal
setting. These need to be developed in students and implemented prior to (and
alongside) programmes in teacher education. According to Holt-Reynolds (2000), there
is a risk that teacher educators should be sensitive to, namely that prospective teachers
conceive constructivism as a pedagogical rather than a learning theory, with the result
that the means becomes an end in itself. This causes them to focus on generating
discussion, instead of enhancing new learning.

Conclusion

This unit focused on Education Studies as a discipline. It emphasised how teachers who
study the subject are helped to become professionals in the occupation of teaching. A
distinction was made between teacher educators who teach teachers in a higher
education institution and those whom they teach, namely students who will become
schoolteachers. Different approaches used in teaching Education Studies were
described – from the earliest behaviourist ideas to constructivism, experiential learning
and community of practice. The emphasis fell on teacher educators in Education
Studies fulfilling three roles, namely serving as purveyors of knowledge, role models
and researchers.

2. 3 Current situation in South African

schools

The following was reported by City Press in association with News24

([Link]
amnesty-international-sa-embarks-on-education-campaign-20190729):
 "Learning from the past is vital to understanding our present. However, Amnesty
International's ultimate goal with this campaign is to ensure that every child in
South Africa is given a hope for the future by receiving a quality education."

This is in agreement with the United National Global Compact principles 1& 2.

HUMAN RIGHTS

Principle 1 Businesses should support and respect the protection of internationally

proclaimed human rights: and

Principle 2 make sure that they are not complicit in human rights abuses.

Shenilla Mohamed, Amnesty International South Africa's executive director, said

in the statement South African schools still lacked basic resources.

"More than two decades after the end of apartheid, South Africa's education
system still mirrors the apartheid years, with many schools serving our poorest
communities relying on outdated and poorly maintained infrastructure and a dire
lack of teaching resources that provides a wholly inadequate learning space for
young people.

"While South Africa has made progress in providing access to education, it has
yet to tackle the deeply entrenched legacy of apartheid, left by Hendrick Verwoerd,
that continues to result in massive inequalities in the country's education system,"
she said.

The organisation added that 78% of South Africa's 10-year-old pupils could not
read, and 61% of 11-year-olds could not do basic mathematics.

Pupils at 17% of the country's schools are still forced to use highly dangerous
and unsanitary pit latrines, leading to several tragic deaths by drowning in recent
years. Currently, half of the around 1.2 million pupils enrolled in Grade 1 every year
drop out by Grade 12. Only 14% of pupils, who enter the country's school system,
will qualify for university.

During apartheid, the Bantu Education Act was introduced, which racially
separated pupils. Black schools were underfunded, and subjects were taught with
the aim to direct black pupils to the unskilled labour market.

The terrible percentages presented in this report are not reporters exaggerating
the situation to make it seem newsworthy. Good researchers echo the same dismal
facts and have been doing so for 20 or more years (Spaull, 2015). Low-quality
education is being delivered country-wide.

To enter a school and teach is a serious decision in an atmosphere like the

current one.

2.4 Suitability of different teaching models for the

South African context

Schools in South Africa (and universities that teach Education Studies) vary
greatly in innumerable ways: from management to resources, structures to the
availability of textbooks and stationery, and unqualified staff to overcrowded
classes. This module started unit 1 with the question: "What is the nature of
knowledge?" In expanding that to determine how we construct knowledge; we hope
you will be able to adapt the different models to various disciplines and their
requirements when you enter the field.

The relationship between Education Studies

and educational theories Kwenda,
Adendorff and Mosito (2017) found that
student teachers have an understanding of
the theories they were taught in Education
Studies
Schön (1983) states that the job of a theory is to evoke judgement, rather than
rote obedience, adding that the application of educational theory to practice means
bringing critical intelligence to bear on practical tasks, rather than merely treating it
as advice. The practitioner must make an effort to discover the pertinence of
theory for his/her particular practical situation. If he/she does not do or know how
to do this, it may be a fault that goes back to the teachers of theory (thus, the
teachers themselves are not to blame). In the history of education, often
educational theories have been taught not as analytical tools but as ideologies or
dogmas that brook no argument. For Schön (1983), putting theory into practice
should not be passive but rather a way of learning to ask a variety of questions
about practical situations, with the guidance of relevant axioms or generalisations.
This insistence on the practitioner's responsibility for actively applying theories,
exercising judgement or showing critical intelligence, can be summed up in
Schön's (1983) notion of the reflective practitioner.

For a long time, it was argued that educational theories had little to do with the
lived experience of new teachers. After reading the article by Kwenda, Adendorff
and Mosito (2017), how has that assumption changed?

Understanding problem solving skills

To solve problems, one must think actively and energetically. Butterworth and Thwaites
(2013) deem this to be a skill:

it is not about any thinking. There are language and communication skills involved, of
course, and these are very considerable skills in their own right. But they are
contributory skills to the activities which we are calling 'thinking'. This distinction is
often made by assigning some skills a 'higher order' than others. Much work has been
done by psychologists, educationalists, philosophers and others to classify and even
rank different kinds of thinking. Most would agree that activities such as analysis,
evaluation, problem solving and decision-making present a higher order of challenge
than simply knowing or recalling or understanding facts. What distinguishes higher
orders of thinking is that they apply knowledge and adapt it to different purposes. They
require initiative and independence on the part of the thinker.

It is important to remember that skills are acquired, improved and judged by

performance. In judging any skill, there are two key criteria: (1) the expertise with which
a task is carried out; and (2) the difficulty of the task. We are familiar with this in the
case of physical skills. There are basic skills (such as walking, running and jumping) and
there are advanced skills (such as gymnastics, woodwork or piano playing). It does not
make much sense to talk about jumping 'well' unless you mean jumping a significant
distance, clearing a high bar or somersaulting in mid-air and landing on your feet. There
has to be a degree of challenge in the task. But even when the challenge is met, there is
still more to be said about the quality of the performance. One gymnast may look
clumsy and untidy, another perfectly controlled and balanced. Both have performed the
somersault but one has done it better than the other: with more economy of effort and
more skilfully. The first of these two criteria also applies to thinking. Once we have
learned to count and add, tell the time, read and understand a text, recognise shapes,
and so on, we do these things without further thought, and we do not regard them as
skilled. You do not have to think 'hard' unless there is a hard problem to solve, a
decision to make, or a difficult concept to understand.

As a judge of physical performance, the degree of the challenge posed by the task is a
criterion used to assess the problem. If a student can solve a difficult problem, within a
set time, that is usually judged as a sign of greater skill than solving an easier one. When
it comes to assessing the quality of someone's thinking, it is more complicated.
Because mental performance is primarily hidden inside a person's head, unlike physical
performance, which is very visible, it can be difficult to assess. So, say, two students
give the same right answer to a question, we cannot tell from the answer alone how it
was reached. In this module, you are expected to think and use your thinking skills to
solve problems/provide solutions to a problem.

3.1.3 Problem-solving in more detail

Key problem-solving skills include the following:

Active listening

Analysis
Research

Creativity

Communication

Dependability

Decision making

Team building

We give three different takes on the problem-solving process, a six-step process, the
Butterworth and Thwaites (2013) process and McKinsey's seven-step process. There are
many ways to solve problems. One such formula is the six-step problem-solving
process, which entails the following activities:

STEP 1: Identify and select the problem

STEP 2: Analyse the problem

STEP 3: Generate potential solutions

STEP 4: Select and plan the solution

STEP 5: Implement the solution

STEP 6: Evaluate the solution

For Butterworth and Thwaites (2013:79–80), the following "three clearly defined
processes" may be used when solving problems:
Identify which pieces of data are relevant when faced with a mass of data (most of
which is irrelevant).

Combine pieces of information that may not appear to be related (to provide new
information).

Relate one set of information to another in a different form – this involves using
experience (relating new problems to ones we have already solved).

When solving problems, in the real world or examinations, you either are given, have or
can find, information in various forms – text, numbers, graphs or pictures – and need to
use these to come up with a further piece of information that will be the solution to the
problem. The processes described above are the fundamental building blocks of
problem solving and can be expanded into areas of skill that may be brought together to
solve more complex problems (Butterworth & Thwaites, 2013: 79–80).

Look at McKinsey's (2012) seven-step way of solving a problem (the seven-step

problem-solving framework):

STEP 0: Collaborate, collaborate, collaborate

STEP 1: Define the problem

STEP 2: Structure the problem

STEP 3: Prioritise areas for deeper exploration

STEP 4: Plan the work

STEP 5: Conduct analyses

STEP 6: Synthesise
STEP 7: Develop recommendations

3.3 Problem-solving skills in a real-world situation

Our communities have an impact on all elements of our social lives Education is
affected by problems in the larger community and directly in the school situation.

There are even bigger circles within the circles that affect education and one such is
language. The move to teach in the mother tongue or English or Afrikaans has had many
consequences for education over the years.

Online and traditional and Problem based

learning
Traditional teaching is the face-to-face kind we have all experienced. Perhaps
online teaching and learning through Unisa is a "first" for you. However, it is the
learning that is important, not the medium. Nevertheless, one has to make
adjustments. In the late 20 th and early 21 stcenturies because of the move away from
passive learning (the teacher fills up the heads of the learners with content that
they repeat) to learner-centred styles, problem-based learning (PBL) grew in
importance.

Problem-based learning (PBL)

It is difficult to define PBL and contain it within set boundaries because that
unnecessarily tends to make PBL seem like a progressive approach that is in
opposition to problem-centred, traditional ideas of learning. To avoid this position
(where PBL is considered to be good because it is not the old-fashioned way of
approaching learning), it is wise to adopt a more objective approach and view the
key characteristics of the approach holistically. Then PBL's position as
ideologically placed in the experiential learning discourse becomes clear.

PBL can be described as belonging to an integrative perspective on learning.

Educationists at the end of the 20 th and beginning of the 21stcenturies found it less
useful to categorise ideas about knowledge as "philosophical", "psychological",
"behavioural" or "cognitive". Rather, ideas have begun to be drawn from various
theories to develop more integrative perspectives on learning, and several
educational theories have emerged. PBL, to some extent, symbolises an integrative
approach to learning, since it draws on several learning theories, while at the same
time acknowledging the importance of learning through experience (experiential
learning).

Looking at yourselves as learners learning to become teachers, there are many

benefits in approaching learning by asking questions and seeking answers. You
can develop the following:

· An understanding of teaching as a moral and intellectual activity requiring

inquiry, judgement and engagement with multiple others (students, parents,
colleagues and the scholarly community)

• An appreciation for the importance of research in understanding the

curriculum, teaching and learning
• A desire to engage in your own educational inquiries to become a student of
teaching.

The problem-based way of teaching is both interactive and proactive in that it

enables learners to learn by investigating problems that are worth [Link] is a
method of learning and teaching in which real-world problems are used to promote
learning. In short, learners learn by solving complex and actual problems that can
be incorporated into any learning situation. For example, you might be given the
following problem to solve.

In PBL (note the difference, we are back to learning), if anunfamiliar problem,

situation or task is presented to learners, they are required to determine for
themselves how they would go about solving that problem. PBL, which occurs
through small group work, allows learners and students to use their prior
knowledge in the topic area, and to identify gaps in their knowledge as they
attempt to solve a problem. Therefore, PBL is a learner/student-centred approach
to learning that encourages learners and students to be self-directed,
interdependent and independent as they employ a variety of methods to solve a
particular problem.

3.4.2 Technology-enhanced learning

The use of technology in teaching and learning (technology-enhanced learning

[TEL]) makes it important for you as a preservice teacher to integrate the
knowledge of technology, pedagogy and subject content (so-called blended
knowledge). Modern internet technologies provide new opportunities for the
preservice training of teachers, making it possible to overcome the restrictions of
shrinking resources and geographical locations and to offer high-quality learning
experiences to geographically dispersed learners and students. The integration of
technology is challenging for teacher educators to teach (as much as it is for
teachers in schools) if they are not prepared. Modelling best practices at schools
can be challenging. Managing the equipment dimension of educational
technologies in teacher education involves the effective use of the available
hardware and equipment. Teachers have to be prepared to use technology in their
classrooms as schools become computer competent. The pedagogy of blended
learning calls for you to reflect on what the pedagogy should be. Think of how you
have used videos in this course and how we as your teachers have used that
technology. It has not been a passive learning experience

Changes in the role and influence of information and communication

technologies (ICTs) in teacher development have been happening since the 1990s
at an increasing pace. There are blogs about virtual learning environments, which
are useful in teacher education. Through the use of blogs, preservice teaching
candidates can hone their abilities to reflect on their own teaching and provide
constructive comments to their peers. As a communication tool, blogs can
promote further collaboration among teachers and increase social interaction. A
blog is a free and simple resource that allows teachers to do research and obtain
information beyond their own contexts.
3.5 What is blended learning?

Singh (2003:51) addresses the issue of blended learning by noting that the
"blended learning requirements and preferences of each learner tend to be
different". Because this is the case, each organisation (school, business or
university) has to employ several diverse approaches as part of its strategy to get
the right content, in the right format, to the right people, at the right time. As there
are many modes of delivery, blended learning can now be designed to include
several forms of learning tools, such as real-time/virtual, collaboration, software,
self-paced web-based courses, electronic performance support systems (EPSS)
which are embedded in the job-task environment, and knowledge management
systems. Many event-based activities can be combined in a blended learning
classroom, a virtual set-up or a face-to-face scenario. Blended learning mixes
activities such as live e-learning and self-paced learning. This is often a mix of
traditional instructor-led training, synchronous online conferencing or training, and
asynchronous self-paced study. There is nothing bad about including structured,
on-the-job training from an experienced individual, as is the case with mentors who
guide preservice teachers.

3.5.1 Understanding blended learning and its importance

The term "blended learning" describes how e-learning is integrated or combined

with a more traditional classroom setup to offer independent study
(see [Link]
learning/). Read the additional information supplied for an in-depth understanding
of the concepts and content used in this module.

Through this particular learning approach, facilitators ensure that their

audiences remain engaged and that their overall learning experience is productive.
The learning strategy is more popular among individuals who have unique learning
styles as it caters to individual needs and offers greater flexibility and convenience.
However, to fully and completely incorporate this learning strategy, there are two
basic factors to consider:

1) While some learners prefer a combination of online and traditional

classroom settings, it is important to consider the target segment of catered
students. Not every learner is motivated enough to actively engage in blended
learning. For such learners, this particular learning strategy is not suitable.

2) Motivation is a critical aspect of any blended learning strategy, as is

"targeted segmentation". Managing this part of blended learning involves the
planned crafting of blended assessments. Here, the term is associated with
"assessment" to emphasise that it is not as focused on traditional assessment as
traditional examinations and tests are. This means that developing innovative
content is a major factor to consider.

Developing unique and engaging content and creating a productive environment

of blended learning (in whatever format) is not always easy and can be quite
challenging for many reasons. The development of this learning strategy involves
both the target audience and the content developer integrating advanced
technology and its basic know-how into study material. Similarly, these kinds of
learning platforms cannot be accessed in the absence of adequate and fast
bandwidth, Wi-Fi or internet access. Technology is vital for complete and easy
access to the learning material and for learning in a blended learning environment.
In addition, blended learning strategies involve the use of the right software tools
to develop a more engaging and advanced curriculum, all of which help to achieve
set learning goals.

3.5.2 Blended learning in an academic setup

An effective learning strategyis not only implemented for training students but is
also used at the corporate level. Blended learning allows participants to work with
instructors at a facility and to receive assistance from additional online resources
while at home. In that way, they can also use the opportunity to communicate with
their instructors via various online communication methods or to receive advice
and support from the class. The variety of formats used keeps the content
engaging, allows for greater creativity and grants users the space/opportunity to
dig deeper into a subject.

Every strategy has benefits and limitations. The important question is whether
the benefits outweigh the limitations. People ask: Does the integration of self-
paced learning with face-to-face interaction offer any benefit to the participants?
Are the efforts worth the rewards? It is thus crucial to weigh up the advantages and
disadvantages that come with adopting blended learning.

[Link]. The advantages of blended learning.

The advantages include the following:

a) Round-the-clock access to training resources

Since blended learning involves online and digital resources, time limitations are
simply a matter of the past if you have a good internet connection. This learning
strategy implies that online resources are available 24/7. In addition, if your
blended learning strategy offers a public forum, you can also learn from the
experience of others and find a workable solution without the assistance of an
instructor/tutor.

b) A personalised training experience

The strongest aspect of blended learning is the chance to receive personalised

training. Every individual's learning needs can be catered for. As every user has
different learning capabilities, thus not all students are always on the same page in
terms of grasping the information. Each student can choose a path through the
specific topic/learning area that works for him/her.

Undoubtedly, face-to-face interaction and various aids that enable timeous

performance feedback have made blended learning a unique training and
development strategy. The overall result of this particular strategy is that it enables
every learner to focus on the information and skills he or she needs, without having
to attend long, unnecessary lectures or having to work through piles of unrelated
information.

c) Better communication and collaborative learning

Even though the blended learning strategy allows a participant to access

resources in the absence of an instructor, it still improves communication and
interaction among participants and with instructors/tutors. Online learning
platforms offer a great variety of communication tools, including e-mail,
news announcements, instant messaging, online grading tools, online discussions,
drop boxes, and more. All of these communication tools offer great flexibility in
terms of ensuring timely communication. Where a student has concerns or
requires feedback/evaluation, all of this is possible instantly, without any time
constraints.

Similarly, unlike traditional classrooms, blended learning offers a good

collaborative environment for participants. This substantially increases
collaboration among students and between the instructor and student, which
makes it ideally suited as an online training platform. If students use diverse
collaborative tools such as blogs, online discussions, instant messages and others,
they can collaborate better, both inside and outside of the training room.

d) Track participants' skill and performance development

If you have incorporated the right tools into your blended learning course, you
can easily track data regarding the participants' eventual performance
improvement. This learning strategy makes data tracking not only much more
convenient but also faster. It helps to eliminate the cookie-cutter approach to
grading exams. Instead, it offers a better evaluation option of online assessment
that comes with a built-in grading rubric and the additional benefit of immediate
feedback.

This modern learning strategy can easily track the material that a participant
access. It also shows at what time and for how long he or she viewed the material.
All of this – especially in a corporate setup – can easily be done digitally, providing
a track record of employees, which may be used to take decisions regarding their
promotion and/or development. In fact, nowadays many organisations use this
opportunity to determine which activities are more effective and which need
improvisation or modification, to fully meet the objectives or performance goals.

e) Cost-effective training strategy

Every business strives to use strategies that are both smart and cost-effective.
Blended learning is just one such strategy. As you incorporate more and better
online options in a blended learning programme, it not only saves on travelling
costs but also the cost of missed workdays. That is, as you integrate the events of
your training programme into an online setup, it not only eliminates the limitations
of time and place but also reduces travel costs for the instructor and the
participants alike.

There is no need for an instructor to be present at a location or to rent a training

venue. Similarly, the same advantage pertains to the availability of content on an
online platform. Courses can be expanded and updated in a fraction of the time
because there is no need to worry about printing course material (as is the case in
a traditional classroom).

[Link]. The disadvantages of blended learning

The disadvantages of blended learning are focused on the challenge of

incorporating blended learning into a training programme and include the
following:

a). High maintenance cost

Incorporating advanced technology into blended learning projects (infrastructure

setup and devices) can be costly. In a corporate environment, this is especially true
for bigger organisations with various departments or a large workforce. If, however,
you compare this cost to all the other benefits that come from blended learning,
this is only a short-term expense that will eventually be quite beneficial in the long
run.

b). Technological dependence

To achieve the learning objectives of a blended learning programme, content

developers employ technological tools and resources that are simple to use,
reliable and updated. All of this is possible if participants have strong internet
connectivity as this has a meaningful impact on the overall learning environment
and experience. That is why incorporating this learning strategy depends on
technological feasibility and in case of technical issues or inadequate technical
access, the objectives of this advanced learning strategy are unachievable.

Since blended learning is about technological dependence, there is a limitation

on the technical skills of the instructors and the learners respectively. Users who
are not tech-savvy can face significant barriers or obstacles to smooth interaction
and may find it difficult to access the course material. Therefore, this learning
strategy must come with adequate technical support.

C). Wastage of offered resources

This links with the limitation discussed above in (b). If students are unaware of
the technology used in a learning course, there is a chance that the desired results
will not be achieved. Similarly, if the provided technological tools are inadequate
and not relevant to the course material, this will represent a wastage of resources,
and there will not be sufficient return on investment (ROI).

Gender issues in education

This section will focus on gender issues in education. The context that we are
going to use is South Africa. This, however, does not mean that other countries do
not experience gender issues. problems that are created by Gender issues are
many and are multi-faceted in the whole world.

What do we mean by gender issues?

Let us start by defining the concept gender in order to be able to unpack the
related gender issues in education. According to Jones and Barron, (2007:27)
“gender is a process which begins at birth and is continually being shaped, moulded
ans reshaped throughout life”.

Gender equality

The South African constitution in the Bill of Rights (Chapter 2) states that
Everyone is equal before the law and has the rights to equal protection and benefit
of the law. The constitution therefore gives us hope that all people are equal. The
south African Constitution promotes gender equality. Gender equality is the Equal
Rights and opportunities for girls and boys that help them to sulfil their potential.

However, we are seeing a trend where people females are treated differently by
males. The different treatment of women and girls in our societies has resulted in
women being invisible, their voices are silence, their needs are also ignored. As a
result, South Africa is struggling with gender inequality and the abuse of women
and young girls.

There are different abuses that are experienced by women and young children
in the country.

The 16 Days of Activism for No Violence against Women and Children Campaign
(16 Days Campaign) is a United Nations campaign which takes place annually from
25 November (International Day of No Violence against Women) to 10 December
(International Human Rights Day). It focuses on raising awareness to the devastating
impact that gender-based violence and femicide (GBVF) has on women and children,
and the social fabric of our society ([Link]
 This has led to the 16 days of activism which is a yearly event that is an
initiative that start from 25 November to 10 December. During the 16 days of
activism the whole country and activists who fight for women’s rights conduct
workshops, seminars, webinars or even march to parliament to complain to the
president of the country and other ministers who are supposed to protect women
and children on Gender Based Violence and brutal killing of women and young
children in our societies.

What is Gender Based Violence?

According to the World Health Organizaton (WHO), (2013) explain that it is

accepted that GBV is a global pandemic, affecting millions of adults and children
each year. Globally, it is estimated that at least one in three women will experience
some form of physical or sexual violence during their lifetime) while one in six men
will experience interpersonal violence (for example, domestic abuse) (Bows and
Fileborn, 2020:300).

Different authors define Gender-Based Violence (GBV) differently. Below are

few definitions of GBV. According to a report by Willman and Cornman (2013: 5).

“SGBV refers to harm or threat of harm perpetrated against a person based on

her/his gender. It is rooted in unequal power relationships between men and women;
thus, women are more commonly affected. It is often used interchangeably with
‘violence against women’ and can include sexual, physical, economic and
psychological abuse. SGBV manifests in various forms including physical, emotional
and sexual violence, sexual exploitation, discrimination and harassment”.

In the discussion below we are not excluding boys in the SGB issues in school
environment. GBV can happen to anyone depending on what the perpetrator is
looking for. Since there are many different forms of GBV the aim of this section is
to look also at Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV). SGBV is the most
egregious manifestation of gender inequality.
 At least 35% of the world’s women have experienced some form of Gender-Based
Violence (GBV), and numerous men have been victimized as well. SGBV involves a
range of perpetrators and takes many different forms, from workplace harassment,
domestic and intimate partner violence, to sexual violence, female genital mutilation,
sexselective abortion, trafficking, and in the most extreme cases, femicide (Willman
and Cornman,2013 : 5).

According to the information above there is no one safe in as far as GBV issues
are concerned.

Read-Hamilton, ( 2014: 4) defines GBV as violence “directed at an individual,

male or female, based on his or her specific role in society”. In this interpretation
GBV is violence used against women, girls, men and boys to assert and reproduce
gender roles and norms. According to this understanding, GBV can happen equally
to a person of either sex and is used to reinforce conformity to gender roles. It
includes violence against women and girls, sexual violence against men and
violence that is directed at girls because they are girls and boys because they are
boys, for example the recruitment of boys as combatants into armed groups.
Hence it is important for us to understand what we mean by gender issues and
gender roles.

Gender issues in school

The challenges on gender issues are not new in the education field. According
to

Bayne (2009) the current approach to gender and education that is used in
Sweden was adopted in the 1960s. Gender discussions in the 1960s and 1970s
focused mostly on widening traditional female and male gender roles into a holistic
human role. Traditional gender roles are mainly the result of socialisation in infancy
and childhood (Bayne (2009:130). gender roles that are common in our societies
include the following: A woman or girl child is responsible for cleaning the house
and cooking for the whole family. There are people who still believe that
Mathemathics/ Physical science and other sciences should be studied by boys
only. In some areas women are not even allowed to go to school. They are married
at a young age. Some are forced into arranged marriages at a very young
age. Patriarchal culture contributes a lot in the way women and girl children are
treated in schools. All the practices listed above they work against the democratic
laws of a country and against the constitutional rights of women and children. The
rise of discussions over the academic research outputs, radio, television and
different social media platforms about the disadvantages, discrimination and
subordination suffered by women locally and globally are well documented. Gender
discrimination experienced by women and girl children is not only cause by
patriarchal system it is also cause by religion, social class and culture.

Gender issues in school emerged as a result of different issues. Some of the

issues that promote gender are rooted in our cultural beliefs, political and social
power.

According to Schissel (2000: 973) “the sexists belief system which is not
exclusive to school is influential in the education system. Schools do not intend to
produce masculinities and feminists, but the construction of student identity
occurs through circumscribes behaviour and discource. Schools promote
masculinity by not encouraging girls to play along the boys in masculinist activities
and allowing male aggression in sports. As a result, boys who fail to academically
join in the masculine world of sports.

A school is supposed to be a safe place for learners. However, of late we are

learning about learners both boys and girls who are raped and molested by their
teachers.

Below are some of the horrible incidents that happen to learners in school.

• In Limpopo a deputy principal was found by community members raping

a primary learner (Kamogelo Moichela, 2022).
• A polio teacher raped boys in his class (Greg Nelson, 2018).
 • Learners sleep with their teachers to get better marks (Gerhard
Jacobs,2014; Lubabalo Ngcukana).
• A KZN teacher was expelled from from school A for rapping learners but,
he continued with his bad behiviour in a new school (na. 201, online).
• A man was caught raping her biological daughter (Jonisayi Maromo,
2023).
• A 25-year-old man raped her stepdaughter (Thobeka, Ngema, 2023).

The above occurrences show that schools are no longer safe places for our
children and there is a need for teachers to teach about rape, molestation and bad
behaviours which they should report. It is also important to state that some young
female learners experience rape at home and at school. The department of
Education and teachers and the country as a whole still need to do a lot in order to
fight against gender issues not just at school but in all the whole country.

Conclusion
This unit focused on problem solving, which is an element of critical thinking.
This skill is easily repressed when teaching promotes rote learning and conformity
("we-are-all-the-same" type of thinking). The value of multiculturalism and the
human capacity to reason, solve problems and be empathetic are the most
important knowledge we can pass on. Currently, a style of teaching and learning
that integrates technology into traditional educational environments is opening up
new possibilities, creating a broader horizon with the promise of less parochial
thinking than in the past. This unit also focuses on gender related issues in school.
However, we can not talk about problems in school without discussing what is
happening in our communities.

4.2 Knowledge creation in the curriculum

Much of what we know is tacit knowledge. As a teacher, your job will be to make
your knowledge overt or explicit, especially for learners for whom new concepts
and ideas are at the heart of their learning. Gamble's (2009) concept paper for
Umalusi, available
at [Link] provides the
content for this section, as it covers knowledge creation in the curriculum.

Gamble (2009:4–5) poses five questions before proceeding to answer them.

Starting with "What is or should be the knowledge base that acts as a springboard
for practical application and novel problem solving?" to "separately or in
combination?", isolate each question and answer it by referring to her paper. If you
quote the author, do it accurately and acknowledge where you have done so.
Another paper you might use is by Luckett (2009), entitled "The relationship
between knowledge structure and curriculum: A case study in sociology", in Studies
in Higher Education, 34(4), 441–453. DOI:10.1080/03075070902772018. Although
it is about sociology, the author has many useful things to say.

Africanisation and the decolonisation of the

curriculum in South Africa
The agenda of decolonising a curriculum in South Africa will be incomplete
without the use of Afican philosophy of ubuntu/buntfu as a philosophy of teaching
and without employing the indigenous knowledge of the beneficiaries of the
curriculum. Ubuntu/buntfu is part and parcel of the traditions of the African
population. African traditions and cultures are better explained by using the
indigenous knowledge of the locals.

Education, which was a site of struggle during apartheid, has become a site of
transformation (at least at the level of policy) in post-apartheid South Africa.
Following the democratic elections in 1994, myriad policies were developed
(including many related to education), signalling widespread changes to the
education system. These changes are associated with the challenges presented by
a rapidly changing and globally interconnected world on the one hand, and on the
other hand, the restoration, rejuvenation and reimagining of the traditional values
that were eroded during the colonial and apartheid periods. Whether policy
changes can affect the envisioned "new" education system in this country, remains
to be seen. Nevertheless, a potent source of change might lie in revivifying the
African philosophy of ubuntu.

According to Lefa (2015), ubuntu is at the heart of the African way of life and it
has an impact on every aspect of people's well-being. Amongst others, Lefa (2015)
raises the question of how ubuntu can affect discipline in South African schools:

Ubuntu in the South African context or society is seen as the act of being
human, caring, [of showing] sympathy, empathy, forgiveness or any values of
humanness towards others. Ubuntu is a capacity in South African culture that
expresses compassion, reciprocity, dignity, harmony and humanity in the interests
of building and maintaining a community with justice and mutual caring.

This is a concept that our daily view of our political environment seems to flout.
Yet South Africans remain optimistic.

Here is an example of how I once practised ubuntu/buntfuas a high school teacher:

One of the learners in my classroom, Norah (not her real name), was very ill. She was
chased away from school because her mother was unable to pay her school fees, so she
decided to stay home. Norah was a brilliant and beautiful young girl. My colleagues used to
talk about her frail body in the staffroom. I then decided to visit Norah at home to find out
what type of assistance she required. I was worried about her not attending classes as this
would have a negative impact on her academic performance.

Prior to my visit, I asked the Agriculture teacher for vegetables; she gave me a variety –
and quite a lot. As a result, I needed a car to deliver the vegetables. I did not have a car then
as I was still a young teacher, so I arranged with my colleague to take me to Norah's place. I
also requested a pastor to accompany us.

When we arrived at her home, we started by greeting her and her relatives who had
gathered there, waiting to receive us. After prayers and introductions, we stated the reason
for our visit. I then went outside with Norah to have a one-on-one conversation. Norah told
me that she did not know what was making her sick. During our conversation I advised her to
go to the hospital again to check whether she had tuberculosis or any other disease that could
affect her immune system. During our one-on-one, I provided counselling to Norah,
encouraged her to come back to school and promised to pay her outstanding school fees. I
also told Norah to inform me if she needed anything. After a week, Norah returned to school.
The principal was shocked to see Norah back without paying her outstanding fees. I was in
the staff room when the principal summoned me to his office. He asked why I had told Norah
to return to class without paying her school fees. I apologised to the principal and said that I
had forgotten to pay but that the money was in my bag. I then paid Norah's tuition fees and
asked the principal to allow learners from poor families to rather write their examinations
and then withhold their results, which is better than not allowing the learners an opportunity
to write their final examinations.

This case can be very different from the situation you may find yourself in as a teacher. It
illustrates, however, that each of us is capable of doing something good or showing kindness
to others, without excepting any reward.

As a teacher, you can also teach your learners to give and share with less fortunate
children in the class. Some learners have only one pair of shoes while others have plenty of
everything: shoes, clothes, toys, and so on – some of which they may no longer use as the
items might be outdated or too small. If you reach the more fortunate learners to share with
less fortunate children, you will be teaching your learners the principles of caring and sharing
which are also promoted in the notion of ubuntu/buntfu.

Teachers must understand that people stay and work in different places and have different
socioeconomic needs. Therefore, the challenges facing your learners are diverse. Please
involve the learners and their parents whenever you want to provide solutions or assistance to
them. Remember: your kind actions might be misinterpreted by the people you are trying to
help. It is better to ask the learners and their parents what support they need as they will then
feel that they were consulted and that their voices matter.
Indigenous knowledge in Education Studies
Local and indigenous knowledge refers to the understandings, skills and
philosophies developed by societies with long histories of interaction with their
natural surroundings (i.e., different peoples in different locations). For rural and
indigenous peoples, local knowledge informs their decision making about
fundamental aspects of day-to-day life. This knowledge is integral to a cultural
complex that also encompasses language, systems of classification, resource use
practices, social interactions, rituals and spirituality. These ways of knowing are
important facets of the world's cultural diversity and provide a foundation for
locally appropriate, sustainable development. In teaching Educational Studies, it is
important to reflect on these facts. In the classroom, respecting and listening to
others' views are important skills.

As a teacher, being aware and knowledgeable of the diversity of your students is

one way of showing respect for them and their families. Understanding the
community in which the school is located, will help to develop effective
instructional strategies that draw on the cultural background and experiences of
your learners. You should help them affirm their own cultureswhile teaching them
that people of different cultures share many similarities. In addition, they should
become aware of cultural differences and inequalities in the nation and in the
world. As a teacher, you will find that your learners have individual differences,
even though they may appear to be from the same cultural groups. These
differences extend far beyond intellectual and physical abilities. Learners bring to
the classroom different historical and cultural backgrounds, religious beliefs, kinds
of knowledge and day-to-day experiences that guide how they behave in school.
The cultures of some students will be mirrored in that of the school.

Any differences between home and school cultures and ways of knowing will
cause dissonance unless a teacher can accept and respect his/her learners'
cultures, integrate those cultures into the curriculum, and develop a supportive
environment for learning. If the teacher fails to understand the cultural factors that
affect learners' learning and behaviour, it will be difficult to help all of them to learn.
This conundrum has prompted the discourse on multicultural education – an
educational construct in which learners' cultures are integrated into the curriculum,
instruction, and the classroom and school environment. It supports and extends
the concepts of culture, diversity, equality, social justice and democracy into the
school setting. An examination of these concepts and their practical applications
in schools is the first step in creating a multicultural classroom.