Chapter :01
What is Citizenship?
Definition:
Citizenship refers to the status of being a member of a political community, which can be a state
or nation. A citizen owes allegiance to the government of that state and is entitled to its
protection. Citizenship is a legal status that signifies a person’s rights and responsibilities within
a political framework.
Beyond Legal Status:
While citizenship includes legal rights and obligations, it also encompasses moral and social
dimensions. It is about the connection between an individual and their country, defined by
shared values, norms, and behaviors that guide an individual’s interaction with society and the
government. It reflects a person’s belonging to the nation-state.
Dual Nature:
● Rights:
○ Citizens enjoy certain rights, including voting, freedom of expression, and access
to public services such as education and healthcare.
○ These rights provide citizens with an avenue to participate in governance and
decision-making.
● Duties:
○ Citizens also have responsibilities like obeying laws, paying taxes, participating in
jury duty, and serving the community during times of national need, such as
emergencies.
Key Concept:
Citizenship provides a framework for individuals to assert their rights while contributing to the
society through duties. Both rights and duties are fundamental in creating a functional
democracy.
Pakistani Example:
In Pakistan, citizenship grants individuals the right to vote in elections, such as the national
general elections, where citizens select their political representatives. Citizens also have duties
such as paying taxes and following the legal framework of the country. The concept of
citizenship is central to understanding the structure of Pakistan's democracy and how its citizens
interact with the government.
What is Public Ethics?
Definition:
Public ethics refers to the moral principles and standards that guide the actions of public
officials, elected representatives, and other actors involved in the governance process. Public
ethics is essential for ensuring that the government serves the public interest and avoids actions
motivated by personal gain or corruption.
Guiding Principles:
● Integrity: Public officials must act with honesty and integrity, ensuring their decisions are
made with the public’s welfare in mind, not personal advantage.
● Impartiality: Officials should make decisions that are fair and objective, not influenced
by political or personal biases.
● Accountability: Government actions must be transparent and officials must be
answerable for their decisions.
Self-regulation vs. Enforcement:
● Self-regulation: Public ethics are ideally upheld by individuals in power, who must
adhere to high moral standards, ensuring that they act in the public’s interest.
● Enforcement: Legal frameworks and oversight bodies ensure that these ethical
standards are maintained through laws, regulations, and accountability structures.
Context Matters:
Public ethics differs from private ethics because the consequences of a public official’s actions
impact society at large. Public ethics often involves making decisions that have a widespread
effect, such as allocation of resources, policy-making, and legal enforcement.
Pakistani Example:
Public ethics in Pakistan is crucial, especially when considering high-profile cases like the
Panama Papers, which revealed corruption among political leaders. In response, institutions like
the National Accountability Bureau (NAB) were established to promote ethical conduct in public
office. Public ethics directly affects citizens' trust in government institutions and ensures that
resources are used efficiently for public welfare.
The Relationship between Citizenship and Public Ethics
Mutually Dependent:
Citizenship and public ethics are intertwined. Ethical conduct by public officials strengthens
citizens' trust in governance, while active and ethical citizenship ensures a vibrant and
accountable democracy.
Citizen Expectations:
Citizens expect government officials to be honest, transparent, and accountable. They want
their leaders to uphold the public trust and make decisions that benefit the majority, not the few.
Ethical behavior is essential for maintaining this trust and ensuring active participation in the
democratic process.
Citizen Participation:
An ethical citizenry, where citizens actively engage in governance, strengthens democracy.
When citizens take part in decision-making processes, hold officials accountable, and demand
transparency, they ensure that public ethics are upheld and the government is responsive.
Evolving Dynamic:
Public ethics are not static; they evolve as societal values change. For example, neoliberalism
in the 1980s shifted ethical frameworks in many countries, favoring market-driven solutions over
public welfare services. This shift impacted the relationship between citizens and the
government, leading to debates about the prioritization of efficiency over equity.
Pakistani Example:
In Pakistan, ethical concerns are frequently raised about political leaders, with citizens often
expressing frustration over corruption and lack of accountability. The erosion of public trust,
seen in movements like the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) anti-corruption campaigns, highlights
the evolving dynamic between citizens and public ethics in the political sphere.
Differences Among Citizen, Customer, and Stakeholder/Co-Creator
1. Citizen (Traditional Public Administration):
● Social Contract: The relationship between the state and citizens is based on a social
contract. Citizens have rights (e.g., to vote, education, health) and duties (e.g., obey
laws, pay taxes).
● Role: In the traditional model, citizens are seen as passive recipients of government
services. The government’s role is to ensure fairness, justice, and equality under the law.
2. Customer/Client/User (New Public Management):
● Market Contract: The relationship is based on a market-oriented approach where
citizens are viewed as customers or clients of public services. The focus shifts from
rights to service delivery, with efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and consumer satisfaction
being central.
● Role: Citizens are treated like consumers who have expectations regarding the quality
and efficiency of services. Government performance is measured by customer
satisfaction rather than fairness or equality.
3. Stakeholder/Co-Creator (New Public Service / Responsive Governance):
● Collaborative Contract: Citizens are seen as active participants in the governance
process. They play a role in shaping policies, services, and outcomes. This model
emphasizes collaboration, shared responsibility, and the co-creation of public value.
● Role: Citizens are no longer passive recipients or consumers but co-creators of public
value. They participate in decision-making processes, deliberation, and accountability
mechanisms.
Pakistani Example:
● Citizen: The right to free primary education in Pakistan is guaranteed to all citizens,
regardless of income or background, ensuring equal access under the social contract.
● Customer: The healthcare system in Pakistan is increasingly adopting market-based
reforms, where patients can choose between public and private healthcare options
based on performance and satisfaction.
● Stakeholder: Participatory budgeting in cities like Karachi and Lahore allows citizens to
directly influence how municipal funds are allocated, giving them a voice in local
governance.
Comparative Summary (Citizen vs. Customer vs. Stakeholder)
Dimension Citizen Customer/Client/User Stakeholder/Co-Crea
tor
Definition Rights & duties in a Needs & preferences in a Active partner shaping
constitutional state market policies
Contractual Social contract Market contract Collaborative contract
Basis
Accountability Political, legal Service provider Multiple, including
channels accountability social & political
Role in Passive, Service consumer with Active participant in
Governance law-abiding citizen limited policy input governance
Examples Voting rights, free School choice, healthcare Participatory
education reforms budgeting, school
boards
Traditional Public Administration
Characteristics:
● Merit-based System: Public administration was structured around merit, with
recruitment and promotion based on skills and qualifications.
● Apolitical: Civil servants were expected to serve impartially and execute the laws
without political bias.
● Job Security: Civil servants enjoyed job security and had a clear career path, which
ensured stability and reliability in public administration.
Pakistani Example:
In Pakistan, the civil services system is still largely based on the British model, with a focus on
seniority-based promotions and secure job tenure. The Pakistan Administrative Service (PAS) is
an example of this structure, where officials are expected to follow the legal framework and
serve impartially.
Public Management
Characteristics:
● Focus on Efficiency: Public management emphasizes efficiency and results.
Bureaucratic procedures are minimized to make government operations more flexible
and responsive.
● Private Sector Practices: Inspired by the private sector, public management includes
practices like performance-based contracts, strategic planning, and management by
objectives (MBO).
● Human Resource Management: The role of HR shifts from administration to
management, focusing on aligning human resources with organizational goals.
Pakistani Example:
The introduction of performance-based contracts in Pakistan's public sector, such as in
state-owned enterprises (SOEs), reflects the public management approach, where output and
performance are emphasized over traditional bureaucratic procedures.
New Public Management (NPM)
Characteristics:
● Marketization: Public services are treated like products in a competitive market.
Emphasis is placed on consumer choice, competition, and cost-effectiveness.
● Contracting and Performance: Public services are increasingly outsourced, and
performance is measured based on results, rather than processes.
● Criticism: NPM has been criticized for eroding the ethos of public service, undermining
professionalism, and promoting inequality in service access.
Pakistani Example:
The privatization of industries like Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) and Pakistan Railways
reflects the NPM approach, where privatization, efficiency, and customer satisfaction are
prioritized over traditional public administration values.
The New Public Service/Responsive Governance
Key Principles:
● Serve, Not Steer: The role of government is to serve citizens, not dictate to them.
Governments should empower citizens to participate in decision-making, not just provide
services top-down.
● Public Interest, Not By-product: The goal of governance should always be the public
interest, not a side effect of other goals like economic gain or political power.
● Think Strategically, Act Democratically: Strategic thinking should guide public
administration, but it must always be tempered with democratic principles. This ensures
that governance is not only effective but also participatory and inclusive.
● Serve Citizens, Not Customers: Unlike in New Public Management, where citizens are
treated as customers with service needs, Responsive Governance sees citizens as
active participants in shaping public policies and services.
● Complex Accountability: Accountability in Responsive Governance is more intricate
than simply meeting performance metrics. It involves various levels of responsiveness,
including political, social, and legal dimensions.
● Value People, Not Just Productivity: While efficiency is important, Responsive
Governance stresses the value of people, emphasizing public service as a means of
improving the lives of individuals and communities, not just achieving outputs.
● Value Citizenship and Public Service Above Entrepreneurship: This principle
contrasts with NPM's emphasis on market principles. In Responsive Governance, public
service and citizenship are central, while market-based entrepreneurial thinking is
secondary.
Pakistani Example:
● Participatory Budgeting: In Pakistan, especially in local governments like in Karachi,
participatory budgeting initiatives allow citizens to have a say in how local government
funds are allocated. This model strengthens democratic participation and accountability.
● NGOs in Pakistan: The role of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in Pakistan,
such as Edhi Foundation, shows an example of how responsive governance works
through civil society partnerships. These NGOs collaborate with the state to provide
services in areas such as health, education, and disaster relief, ensuring that services
are responsive to the needs of the public.
Responsive Governance
Focus on Public Value:
Responsive Governance aims to create public value by managing multiple stakeholders,
addressing conflicting values, and navigating the complexities of public interest. The goal is not
just service delivery but the creation of meaningful outcomes for society.
Key Features:
● Voice and Civil Society Partnerships: Governments need to create space for the
voices of civil society, including NGOs, community organizations, and grassroots
movements, to ensure responsiveness to public needs.
● Inclusivity: Responsive governance requires the inclusion of diverse perspectives in the
decision-making process, particularly marginalized or underrepresented groups. This
inclusiveness ensures that governance is fair and equitable.
● 360° Accountability: Accountability extends beyond just political accountability through
elections. It includes social, legal, and community-level accountability mechanisms,
ensuring that public services and decisions are scrutinized from multiple angles.
● Openness and Transparency: Responsive governance relies on openness in
government actions. Governments should be transparent in their decisions, especially
when they impact citizens’ lives.
● Apolitical Civil Servants: Civil servants in responsive governance models are expected
to be neutral, apolitical, and socially responsible, focusing on the welfare of citizens
rather than partisan interests.
● Use of ICTs: Information and communication technologies (ICTs) play a significant role
in enabling responsiveness. These tools allow governments to interact with citizens more
effectively, providing platforms for feedback and engagement.
Pakistani Example:
● Role of ICT in Governance: In Pakistan, initiatives like the Citizen Feedback Model,
where citizens can voice complaints and provide feedback on government services,
show how ICTs are being used to make governance more responsive. The government
of Punjab has used ICTs to facilitate e-governance, improving service delivery in areas
like health and education.
● Community Participation in Governance: In rural Pakistan, local governance models
like the Village and Neighborhood Councils allow citizens to participate directly in
decision-making, ensuring that government services align with community needs.
Emerging Issues in Governance Models
Challenges with Overlapping Models:
Many countries, including developed and developing nations, adopt a blend of governance
models, making it difficult to assess their effectiveness. This overlap complicates the process of
determining which approach works best in a given context.
Global Adoption of Models:
● OECD Countries: Countries in the OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development) have largely embraced elements of New Public Management (NPM), but
many have also integrated aspects of Responsive Governance and Traditional Public
Administration to find a balance between efficiency and accountability.
● Different Regional Approaches:
○ Anglo-Saxon Countries: More inclined toward adopting NPM due to their
market-oriented economies.
○ Nordic Countries: Tend to adopt a more balanced approach, blending aspects
of responsiveness with market principles.
○ Developing Countries: Many countries in Africa and parts of Asia are still
working on institutionalizing public administration systems and may be slower to
adopt market-based reforms like NPM.
Pakistani Example:
● Challenges in Pakistan: In Pakistan, governance models are often a mixture of
traditional bureaucracy and market-oriented reforms. For instance, in sectors like health
and education, elements of NPM have been adopted, such as the privatization of public
hospitals and schools, but these have been met with mixed results due to the lack of
sufficient public oversight and accountability.
● Participatory Governance: While initiatives like the Ehsaas Program (which aims to
reduce poverty) promote responsive governance, the effectiveness of such programs is
still a matter of debate, as local governance structures remain weak and underfunded.
The Resilience of Traditional Civil Service Values
Decline of NPM and Return to Traditional Values:
● NPM's Impact on Professionalism: NPM’s emphasis on market-driven approaches and
customer satisfaction has undermined the traditional ethos of public service, which
prioritized professionalism, ethics, and impartiality.
● Reassertion of Traditional Values: Despite the dominance of NPM, many
governments, including in Pakistan, are reasserting the importance of traditional civil
service values like neutrality, job security, and a focus on the public interest.
● Strategic Leadership: Many countries are now refocusing on the role of strategic
leadership in public administration, where civil servants not only implement policies but
also play a key role in shaping them in alignment with long-term public goals.
Pakistani Example:
● Civil Service in Pakistan: The Pakistan Civil Services, particularly in the Pakistan
Administrative Service (PAS), still hold on to traditional values like seniority and job
security. However, there is increasing pressure for reforms, especially as NPM principles
like performance-based incentives and privatization take hold in various sectors.
Responsive to Whom?
Accountability Dimensions:
● Responsiveness to Politicians: Civil servants are often expected to be responsive to
elected politicians, who set the political agenda. However, this can lead to conflicts of
interest, especially when politicians prioritize short-term goals over long-term public
welfare.
● Responsiveness to Citizens: Governments must also be accountable to citizens. This
involves not just fulfilling their service needs but also ensuring transparency, fairness,
and inclusiveness in decision-making.
● Responsiveness to Customers: In sectors that have embraced NPM, such as
healthcare and education, public officials and service providers are accountable to
citizens as customers, with an emphasis on service quality, cost-effectiveness, and
customer satisfaction.
Pakistani Example:
● Pakistan's Accountability Mechanisms: In Pakistan, the public sector is accountable
to both citizens and politicians, but this often leads to challenges. For example, political
interference in civil service decisions has been a longstanding issue, undermining the
efficiency and responsiveness of public services. The role of the NAB (National
Accountability Bureau) is crucial in ensuring that officials are held accountable, but it has
faced criticism for selective enforcement and political influence.
Towards a New Synthesis
The Need for Integration:
A successful public administration system requires a synthesis of various models that balance
efficiency, responsiveness, and accountability. This new synthesis integrates elements of NPM,
Traditional Public Administration, and Responsive Governance to ensure that governance
systems are adaptable and effective in a changing global environment.
Key Features of the New Synthesis:
● Politically Impartial Civil Service: A civil service that is merit-based, politically neutral,
and focused on public welfare.
● Strategic Leadership: Agencies that provide strategic oversight and leadership, rather
than just implementing decisions.
● Result-Oriented Management: Governments should focus on achieving tangible
outcomes that benefit citizens, not just internal efficiency.
● Anti-Corruption Frameworks: Effective anti-corruption rules and agencies are essential
for ensuring that public service remains focused on the public good.
● External Scrutiny: There must be mechanisms for external scrutiny to ensure
transparency and accountability, including independent oversight bodies and public
involvement.
Pakistani Example:
● Future Reforms in Pakistan: Pakistan is exploring a new synthesis of governance
models, which combines traditional civil service values with market-oriented reforms in
some sectors. The reforms aim to improve transparency, accountability, and efficiency in
the public sector, with a focus on anti-corruption measures and better governance.