ECE 331: Electromagnetic Waves

Lecture 2

Dr. Hussein Kotb

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 Phasor notation
• Most of work will be involved with fields having sinusoidal or
Harmonic, time dependence. Steady-state conditions are assumed.
• Phasor notation is very convenient, and so all field quantities will be
assumed to be complex vectors with an implied 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 time
dependence.
o ℰറ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑥𝐴(𝑥,
ො 𝑦, 𝑧) cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
o Cosine-based Phasor form: 𝐸 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥𝐴ො 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜙
o Conversion to real time-varying quantity: ℰറ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
= Re[𝐸 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 ]

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 Phasor form of Maxwell’s equations
• 𝛻 × 𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔𝐵
• 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝑗𝜔𝐷 + 𝐽റ
• 𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌
• 𝛻. 𝐵 = 0
• The electric and magnetic current sources, 𝐽റ is current density with
units A/m2.

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 Motion of electrons in an electric field
• An electron enters a uniform electric field between two parallel
plates.
• The potential difference between the plates is V.
• The electron enters the field at right angles to the field lines.
𝑉
o 𝐹 = −𝑒𝐸 = 𝑒 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑 V V
0 1
y
o 𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
o 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 d
Electron paths
𝑉 2𝑦
o 𝑒 = 𝑚 2 x 0
𝑑 𝑡
𝑒𝑉
o 𝑦= 2 𝑥2 Charged particles move in parabolas
2𝑚𝑑𝑣𝑥
if projected into an electric field in a direction at right angles to
the field.
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 Dielectrics
• In a dielectric, an externally applied electric field 𝑬 cannot effect
mass migration of charges since none are able to move freely.
• 𝑬 will polarize the atoms or molecules in the material by moving the
center of the electron cloud away from the nucleus.
• The polarized atom or molecule may be represented by an electric
dipole consisting of charges +q in the nucleus and −q at the center of
the electron cloud.

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 Dielectrics (cont’d)
• Each dipole sets up a small electric field, pointing
from the positively charged nucleus to the center
of the equally but negatively charged electron
cloud.
• This induced electric field, called a polarization
field, generally is weaker than and opposite in
direction to 𝑬.
• The net electric field present in the dielectric
material is smaller than 𝑬.
• Within a block of dielectric material subject to
uniform external field, the dipoles align
themselves.
• Along the upper and lower edges of the material,
the dipole arrangement exhibits positive and
negative surface charge densities, respectively. 6
 Dielectric in the presence of electric field
• Define the polarization vector, as the
number of dipole moments per unit
volume:
∆𝒑
o 𝑷 = lim
∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣
• Therefore for the volume ∆𝑣 ′ , we can
represent the dipole moment as:
o 𝑑𝒑 = 𝑷𝑑𝑣 ′
• The potential at point P due to the
dipole moment is given by:
1 𝒓−𝒓′
o 𝑑𝑉 = 2 𝑷. 𝑑𝑣 ′ .
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝒓−𝒓′ 𝒓−𝒓′
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 Dielectric in the presence of electric field
1 1 1
• 𝑉= ‫ 𝑆װ‬′ 𝑷. 𝑑𝒔′ − ‫ 𝑣׮‬′ (𝛻 ′ . 𝑷)𝑑𝑣 ′
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝒓−𝒓′ 𝒓−𝒓′
• Bound surface charge density: 𝜌𝑠𝑏 = 𝑷. 𝒂
ෝ𝑛
• Bound volume charge density: 𝜌𝑣𝑏 = −𝛻 ′ . 𝑷
1 1 1
• 𝑉= ‫ 𝑆װ‬′ 𝜌𝑠𝑏 𝑑𝑠 ′ + ‫ 𝑣׮‬′ 𝜌𝑣𝑏 𝑑𝑣 ′
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝒓−𝒓′ 𝒓−𝒓′
• Thus, the polarization of a dielectric material results in
bound charge distributions.
• These bound charge distributions are not like free
charges.
o They are created by separating the charge pairs.
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 Dielectric in the presence of electric field (cont’d)
• If a dielectric region contains the free charge density in
addition to the bound charge density, the contribution
due to the free charge density must also be considered:
𝜌𝑣 +𝜌𝑣𝑏 𝜌𝑣 −𝛻.𝑷
o 𝛻. 𝑬 = =
𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑜
o 𝛻. 𝜖𝑜 𝑬 + 𝑷 = 𝜌𝑣
• The presence of microscopic dipoles in a dielectric
material leads to:
o 𝑫 = 𝜖𝑜 𝑬 + 𝑷

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 Fields in media
• For a dielectric material, an applied electric field 𝐸 causes the
polarization of the atoms or molecules of the material to create
electric dipole moments that augment the total displacement flux 𝐷.
• This additional polarization vector is called the electric polarization
𝑃𝑒 :
o 𝐷 = 𝜖𝑜 𝐸 + 𝑃𝑒

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 Fields in media (cont’d)
• In a linear medium the electric polarization is linearly related to the
applied electric field as: 𝑃𝑒 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜒𝑒 𝐸, where 𝜒𝑒 is called the electric
susceptibility.
• 𝐷 = 𝜖𝑜 𝐸 + 𝑃𝑒 = 𝜖𝑜 1 + 𝜒𝑒 𝐸 = 𝜖𝐸, 𝜖 = 𝜖 ′ − 𝑗𝜖" = 𝜖𝑜 1 + 𝜒𝑒
o 𝜖 ′ = 𝜖𝑟 𝜖𝑜 , where 𝜖𝑟 is the relative permittivity.
o Isotropic medium: 𝑃𝑒 is in the same direction of 𝐸.

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 Fields in media (cont’d)
• The imaginary part of 𝜖 accounts for loss in the medium.
• In a material with conductivity σ, a conduction current density will
exist:
o 𝐽റ = 𝜎𝐸, which is Ohm’s law from an electromagnetic field point
of view.
𝜎
• 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝑗𝜔𝐷 + 𝐽റ = 𝑗𝜔(𝜖 ′ − 𝑗𝜖" − 𝑗 )𝐸
𝜔
𝜔𝜖 ′′ +𝜎
• Tangential loss: tan 𝛿 =
𝜔𝜖 ′

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 Fields in media (cont’d)
• An applied magnetic field may align the magnetic dipole moments in
a magnetic material to produce a magnetic polarization (or
magnetization) 𝑃𝑚 .
o 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻 + 𝑃𝑚
• For a linear material: 𝑃𝑚 is linearly related to 𝐻 as: 𝑃𝑚 = 𝜒𝑚 𝐻, where
𝜒𝑚 is a complex magnetic susceptibility.
• 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 1 + 𝜒𝑚 𝐻 = 𝜇𝐻, where 𝜇 = 𝜇′ − 𝑗𝜇′′ is the complex
permeability of the medium.
• The imaginary part of 𝜒𝑚 or 𝜇 accounts for loss.
• Isotropic medium: 𝑃𝑚 is in the same direction of 𝐻.

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 Maxwell’s equations in media
• If linear media are assumed (𝜖 and μ are not depending on 𝐸 or 𝐻),
then Maxwell’s equations can be written in phasor form as:
o 𝛻 × 𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔𝐵 𝛻 × 𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻
o 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝑗𝜔𝐷 + 𝐽റ 𝛻 × 𝐻 = 𝑗𝜔𝜖𝐸 + 𝐽റ
o 𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌 𝛻. 𝐷 = 𝜌
o 𝛻. 𝐵 = 0 𝛻. 𝐵 = 0
o 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻
o 𝐷 = 𝜖𝐸

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 The wave equation
• In a source-free, linear, isotropic, homogeneous region, Maxwell’s
curl equations in phasor form are:
o ∇ × 𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝐻
o ∇ × 𝐻 = 𝑗𝜔𝜖𝐸
• Taking the curl of the first equation: ∇ × ∇ × 𝐸 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇∇ × 𝐻
= 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖𝐸

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 The wave equation (cont’d)
• Since: ∇ × ∇ × 𝐸 = ∇ 𝛻. 𝐸 − 𝛻 2 𝐸 The
• 𝛻 2 𝐸 + 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖𝐸 = 0, where 𝛻. 𝐸 = 0 for source free region. Helmholtz
• 𝛻 2 𝐻 + 𝜔2 𝜇𝜖𝐻 = 0 equations
o 𝑘 = 𝜔 𝜇𝜖 is the wave number or the propagation constant
(1/m).
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑖 𝜕 2 𝐸𝑖
o Hint: ∇2 𝐸 = ො 2 𝐸𝑥
𝑥∇ + ො 2 𝐸𝑦
𝑦∇ + Ƹ 2 𝐸𝑧
𝑧∇ and 𝛻 2 𝐸𝑖 = +
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2
𝜕 2 𝐸𝑖
+ ; 𝑖 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑜𝑟 𝑧
𝜕𝑧 2

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 Plane wave
• Both fields, 𝐸 and 𝐻, lie in the transverse plane; the plane whose
normal is the direction of propagation.
• Both fields are of constant magnitude in the transverse plane.
• A plane wave takes the form: 𝐴 𝑟,
റ 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑘𝑛ො ⊥ . 𝑟റ − 𝜔𝑡
• The arbitrary (scalar or vector) function f gives the variation of the
wave's amplitude, and the fixed unit vector 𝑛ො ⊥ = 1 is the wave's
direction of propagation.

𝑛ො ⊥

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 Plane wave in lossless medium
• In a lossless medium, 𝜖 and μ are real numbers, and so 𝑘 is real.
• A basic plane wave solution can be found by considering an electric
field with only an 𝑥ො component and uniform (no variation) in the x
and y directions; 𝜕Τ𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕Τ𝜕𝑦 = 0.
𝜕2 𝐸𝑥
o + 𝑘 2 𝐸𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑧 2
• The solution is: 𝐸𝑥 𝑧 = 𝐸 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 + 𝐸 − 𝑒 +𝑗𝑘𝑧 , 𝐸 + and 𝐸 − are
arbitrary constants.
• The time domain solution at angular frequency 𝜔 is:
o ℰ𝑥 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐸 + cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧 + 𝐸 − cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑧

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 Plane wave in lossless medium (cont’d)
• ℰ𝑥 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐸 + cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧 + 𝐸 − cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑧
• The first term represents a wave traveling in the +𝑧 direction.
• To maintain a fixed point on the wave (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧 = constant), one
must move in the +𝑧 direction as time increases.
• The second term represents a wave traveling in the -z direction.
+ −
• The notation 𝐸 and 𝐸 for these wave amplitudes.

𝑘𝑧 = 2𝜋

𝑘𝑧

𝑘𝑧
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 Plane wave in lossless medium (cont’d)
• A complete specification of the electromagnetic field should include
the magnetic field.
• In general, whenever 𝐸 or 𝐻 is known, the other field vector can be
readily found by using one of Maxwell’s curl equations.
1
• 𝐻𝑦 𝑧 = 𝐸 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑧 − 𝐸 − 𝑒 +𝑗𝑘𝑧 , where 𝜂 = 𝜔 𝜇Τ𝑘 = 𝜇Τ𝜖 is the
𝜂
ratio between the 𝐸 and 𝐻 field components. It has unit of
impedance, known as the wave impedance.
• For planes waves in unbounded medium: the wave impedance is
equal to the intrinsic impedance of the medium.
• In free-space the intrinsic impedance is 𝜂𝑜 = 𝜇𝑜 Τ𝜖𝑜 = 377 𝛺.
• Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves: the 𝐸 and 𝐻 vectors are
orthogonal to each other and orthogonal to the direction of
propagation (±𝑧Ƹ ).
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 Phase velocity
• It is the velocity at which a fixed phase point on the wave travels, and
it is given by:
𝑑𝑧 𝑑 𝜔𝑡−constant 𝜔 1
o 𝑣𝑝 = = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑘 𝑘 𝜇𝜖
• In free-space, we have 𝑣𝑝 = 1Τ 𝜇𝑜 𝜖𝑜 = 𝑐 = 2.998 × 108 m/s, which
is the speed of light.
• The wavelength, λ, is defined as the distance between two successive
maxima (or minima, or any other reference points) on the wave at a
fixed instant of time.
𝑘𝑧 = 2𝜋
o 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘 𝑧 + 𝜆 = 2𝜋
2𝜋𝑣𝑝 𝑣𝑝
o 𝜆=
2𝜋
= = 𝑘𝑧
𝑘 𝜔 𝑓

𝑘𝑧
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