Differentiation

CALCULUS

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman

Department of Mathematics,

University of Engineering and Technology,

Lahore-Pakistan.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 Differentiation

Course contents
A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation. Geometrical interpre-
tation of derivative, indeterminate forms, L’Hopital’s rule, asymptotes.
Applications of single variable calculus: Critical points, derivative tests,
optimization, concavity, curvature, Roll’s theorem, Mean value theo-
rem, Newton’s method.

Further techniques of integration, integration by reduction formulae.

Importance of the fundamental theorem of calculus, Definite integral
and its properties. Area enclosed between curves, arc lengths. volume
of a solid of revolution.

Infinite sequences and series, Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s series.

Pre-requisites: The course is intended for those students who have

studied Mathematics to at least Year-12 level. Students taking this
course are expected to have a working knowledge of the basic ele-
ments of single-variable calculus.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 Differentiation

Recommended books
The following are considered as good reference books:

1 George B. Thomas (latest edition), “Calculus".

2 Stewart (latest edition), “Single Variable Calculus".

3 Howard Anton (latest edition), “Calculus".

4 Swokowski (latest edition), “Calculus".

5 N. A. Shah, “Calculus and analytic geometry".

6 S. M. Yusuf, “Calculus and analytic geometry".

Acknowledgement. Much of the material below is from different re-

sources, in-particular, from the above recommended books.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 Differentiation

Learning outcomes
The primary objective of this course is to provide students a modern
introduction to single variable calculus that supports conceptual un-
derstanding with skills students will need to apply in the real world
problems. It is vital to realize that learning how to apply mathemat-
ics is different from learning mathematics. There is less emphasis
on building-up theory, and more emphasis on building-up the skills
needed to formulate and solve mathematical problems.
By the end of this course, the key things students will learn are:
1 Understand the key concepts of single variable calculus;
2 Apply derivatives to find tangents and normals, carry out optimiza-
tion, graphical analysis, concavity of a function, curvature of a
function, and asymptotes of functions;
3 Compute integrals by substitutions, tabular form, reduction formu-
lae, improper forms, and definite integrals and then compute area,
volume, arc length.
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 Differentiation

Expectations and workload

Calculus is assumed to use at least 10 hours per week of students
time. The expected normal pattern of student study each week is
1 three hours of lectures;
2 three hours of lecture preparation and revision (reading the text
books);
3 four hours of assignments and/or home work and preparing for
test and exam.
Students are expected to attend all lectures and to come prepared.
This means that students will have previewed the material and done
any preliminary examples that have been set. Stay on top of the
course material as it is covered. If you get behind, it could be diffi-
cult to catch up. Make use of the assistance available; ask for help as
soon as you need it. Students are encouraged to collaborate with one
another and to work together.
P.S. If you are in any doubt about the permissible degree of collabora-
tion, please do not hesitate to come and see me in person.
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Some basic notations and terminology
You may have come across the terms; theorem, lemma, proposition.
In Mathematics, they refer to results that are true. By convention, the
theorem is often reserved for more significant results, proposition for
less significant ones and lemma are intermediate results used along
the way to proving theorem.
A variable is just a label we use as a place-holder for something, for
example, y = 2x , where x is independent and y is dependent variable.
Hence, y is a function of x , i.e., y (x ). That something could be a fixed
constant value or something that varies (a variable).
We often write members or elements of a set inside curly braces { },
i.e., { element 1, element 2, ... }. Where, “..." (putting 3 dots is the
standard notation) is short hand form of “so on".

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

∈ is used to say something is an element of (belongs to) a set.
∈
/ is used to say something is not an element of a set.
⊂ is used to indicate a subset relationship.
: or | is used for “such that".
Note:- All sets are subsets of themselves.
Example:- A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
The set A contains elements 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6.
Example:- N represents the set of all natural numbers.
Z represents the set of all integer numbers.
Q represents the set of all rational numbers.
R represents the set of all real numbers.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

C represents the set of all complex numbers.
φ or { } is empty set (containing nothing).
Note:- We have that φ is a subset of N, which is a subset of Z, which
is a subset of Q, which is a subset of R, which is a subset of C, i.e.,
φ ⊂ N ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R ⊂ C.
Example:- The set A of all natural numbers that are even and are less
than 12 can be written as

A = {x ∈ N : x is even & x < 12}, or

A = {x ∈ N | x is even & x < 12}, or

A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Example:- The set

A = {{1, 2}, {1, 3}, {4, 11}, 12, 30}

is an example of a set containing other sets as well as numbers.

Example:- {1, 2, 4, 4, 4, 5} is the same set as {5, 4, 2, 1}.
Recall that, elements of a set can only appear once and that the order
does not matter.
Definition:- An interval is a set containing all real numbers between
two bounds. Let a, b belong to the set of R and a ≤ b. Here, a, b are
those bounds. Then

[a, b] = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b}

is called a closed interval.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b}
is called an open interval.
Example:- Let a, b belong to the set of R and a < b. Then

(a, b] = {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b}

is called as half-open half-closed interval.

[a, b) = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b}

is called as half-closed half-open interval.

Example:- Let a ∈ R. Then we have

[a, ∞) = {x ∈ R : x ≥ a}

(a, ∞) = {x ∈ R : x > a}
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

(−∞, a] = {x ∈ R : x ≤ a}

(−∞, a) = {x ∈ R : x < a}
Remarks:-
1 Be-aware that in the previous example, we used the symbol ∞ to
refer to the concept of infinity. Infinity is not a real number, but we
are using it to symbolize the idea that things “go on forever" in a
particular direction of the real number line.
2 ∞ refers to the +ve direction.
3 −∞ refers to the -ve direction.
4 Examining carefully the definitions of intervals involving the sym-
bol ∞. Since ∞ is not a number, it does not make sense to use
≤ ∞ or ≥ ∞.
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Example:- Let A = [2, 4), B = (4, 6], and C = [5, 7). Then we have

A ∪ B = {x ∈ R : x ∈ [2, 6] and x ̸= 4},

B ∩ C = [5, 6],

B ∪ C = (4, 7),

A ∩ C = φ.

Notice that, the intersection of any two intervals is an interval. How-

ever, it is possible that the union of two intervals is not an interval. For
example, here A ∪ B is not an interval as 4 is missing, i.e.,

A ∪ B = {x ∈ R | x ∈ [2, 6] & x ̸= 4}.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Note:- The empty set is also an interval as we can consider, for ex-
ample, 4 < x < 4. Since, there are no x values that satisfy these two
bounds and we don’t have to include the bounds themselves in the in-
terval. Then the empty set satisfies the definition of being an interval.
Similarly, [4, 4] = {4} is an interval as it too satisfies the definition.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Definition:- Let n be a natural number. An ordered n-tuple (n-tuple
means n-dimensional components) is a sequence of real numbers
(v1 , v2 , v3 , ..., vn ), where v1 , v2 , v3 , ..., vn ∈ R. The set of all ordered
n-tuples is called n-space and is denoted by Rn .
Example:- The Cartesian product R2 = R × R is a set of all ordered
pairs (x , y ) with x , y ∈ R. It may also be represented as f : R2 → R or
f : R × R → R.
Definition:- A relation is a set of ordered pairs.
Example:- A = {(2, 4), (1, 1), (0, 2), (1, 6)} is a relation.

R = {(x , y ) ∈ R2 : y 2 = x 2 } is a relation.
Definition:- A function is a relation

S = {(a, b) ∈ A × B : each element of A shows up only once.}

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

if f (x ) is the rule that determines the method for picking how the pairs
are made, then we write

f : A → B; f (x ) = the rule used.

The set A is called the domain of the function and B is called the co-
domain (subtle difference to the range).
Remarks:-
1 Functions are sometimes just given as y = f (x ) or called “f of x "
to specify that y depends on the value of x using some rule f .
2 Sometimes by convention, f (x ) is left out entirely and we are left
to interpret things like y = 2x to mean y is a function of x .

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Example:-

S = {(1, 2), (1, 0), (4, 1)} is not a function.

S can’t define a function because 1 shows up twice in the first compo-

nent of that relation.

R = {(1, 2), (3, 2)} is a function.

R can define a function with the domain as {1, 3 }.

Definition:- Sometimes people use the phrase vertical line test to
see if the relation is a function. It says that if you graph the relation,
i.e., plot all the points and if at any place you can run a vertical line
through which intersects two or more points on the graph, then your
relation can’t be a function. On closer inspection, one should realize
this test is really just seeing if the definition of a function is satisfied.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Example:- S = {(x , y ) ∈ R2 : x 2 + y 2 = 1}
is a relation. It contains all of the points on a circle centered at (0, 0)
of radius 1. It is not a function as (0, 1) ∈ S and (0, −1) ∈ S.
We see that there are in-fact two pairs in this relation with 0 in the first
component. Another way to see it is if we graphed it, then we could
see that it violates the vertical line test.
y
range

domain
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Definition:- The natural domain of a function is a set of all numbers
x ∈ R which makes f (x ) a real number.
Example:-
1 f (x ) = x1 has a natural domain of x ̸= 0, i.e., set of real numbers
excluding zero or R \ {0} or (−∞, 0) U (0, ∞).
2 f (x ) = ln x has a natural domain of x > 0, i.e., R \ (−∞, 0] or
(0, ∞).
√
3 f (x ) = x has a natural domain of x ≥ 0, i.e., [0, ∞).
π
4 f (x ) = tan x has a natural domain of {x ∈ R : x ̸= nπ − 2 for
n ∈ Z}.

Question:- Where are the functions in the previous example undefined?

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Example:- The range of a function f : A → R is the set {f (x ) ∈ R :
x ∈ A}, i.e., the range of a function is the set of values that the function
can output.
Example:-

1 f (x ) = x has a range of R.
2 f (x ) = sin x has a range of [-1, 1].
√
3 f (x ) = x has a range of [0, ∞).

Note:- Special care must be taken when simplifying function. The

simplified form may mislead you in to thinking the natural domain of
the function is different from what it actually is. For example, let
√ √
f (x ) = (1 + x )(1 − x).

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

The rule simplifies down to f (x ) = (1 − x ). So, we might believe the
natural domain is R. However, this is not the case. The natural domain
of f (x ) is [0, ∞).
Definition:- A piecewise function is a function where different rules
are used for different parts of the domain. You can think of a piecewise
function as sticking together a bunch of other functions (where none of
their domains overlap with each other). The domain of the piecewise
function is the union of all of the domains of the other functions and
the codomain is the union of all the codomains, and the range is the
union of all the ranges. Piecewise functions are often written as
⎧
⎪
⎪ rule 1, some specific part of the domain,
⎨
f (x ) = rule 2, another part of the domain,
⎪
⎪
⎩... ..
.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Example:-
Sketch a graph of the following function
⎧
⎪
⎨0, x < 0,
f (x ) = x ,2
0 ≤ x ≤ 1,
⎪
⎩
x − 1, x > 1

Definition:- The absolute value of a number is a function

%
x, x ≥ 0,
|x | =
−x , x < 0.

For any c ∈ R, we can define a function f (x ) = |x − c| that allows

us to measure the distance between the numbers c and x on the real
number line.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

y-axis

x-axis

Figure: The absolute value function y = |x|.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Example:-

| − 2| = 2,

|10.3| = 10.3.

Definition:- Given two functions f and g, we can combine them in

several different ways:

1 Add them, i.e., f (x ) + g(x );

2 Subtract them, i.e., f (x ) − g(x );
3 Multiply them, i.e., f (x )g(x );
4 Divide them, i.e., f (x )/g(x ).

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Definition:- Given two functions f and g, the composition of f and g
is a new function given by
f ◦ g(x ) = f (g(x ))
Example:-
√
Let f (x ) = x 2 + 2 and g(x ) = x . Then we have
√
(f ◦ g)(x ) = f (g(x )) = ( x )2 + 2 = x + 2
&
(g ◦ f )(x ) = g(f (x )) = (x 2 + 2)
Remarks:-

1 Sometimes this composition is referred to as “f of g" or “f of g of

x ".
2 The domain of f ◦ g is the largest subset of Domain(g) so that
Range(g) ⊂ Domain(f ).
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Example:-
√
Let f (x ) = x 2 − 2 and g(x ) = x . Then find (f ◦ g)(x ) and its natural
domain.
Solution:-
√ √
f ◦ (g(x )) = f ( x) = ( x)2 − 2 = x − 2.
√ √
Since g(x ) = x, for all x ≥ 0, x ∈ R, and negative square roots
are not real numbers. So, we have that the natural domain of g is
[0, ∞). The natural domain of f is R, therefore the domain of (f ◦ g)(x )
is x ≥ 0.
Note:-
Note that f ◦ g is not the same as g ◦ f .

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Example:-
√
Let f (x ) = x 2 − 2 and g(x ) = x . Then
&
(g ◦ f )(x ) = g(f (x )) = (x 2 − 2).

Since the natural domain of f is R and the natural domain of g is [0, ∞),
the natural domain of g ◦ f consists of all x ∈ R such that f (x ) = x 2 − 2
lies inside [0, ∞). Therefore,

x 2 − 2 ≥ 0, which gives x 2 ≥ 2.

From this we have √ √

x≥ 2 or x ≤ − 2.
Hence, the domain of g ◦ f is
√ ' (√
(−∞, − 2 ∪ 2, ∞).

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Hence, the domain of g ◦ f is
√ ' (√
(−∞, − 2 ∪ 2, ∞).

Example:-
Simplifying the rule for functions can play tricks when looking for natu-
ral domains of composition of functions. For example, consider

1
f (x ) = g(x ) = .
x
Then
1 1
f (g(x )) = f ( ) = 1 = x .
x x

So while the rule f (g(x )) = x , the natural domain is R\{0}, i.e., all real
numbers that are not zero.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Graph Transformations
There are many times when we know very well what the graph of a
particular function looks like, and we want to know what the graph of a
very similar function looks like. Here, we discuss some ways to draw
graphs in these circumstances.
1. Right-left translation.
Let c > 0. Start with the graph of some function f (x ). Keep the
x − axis and y − axis fixed, but move the graph c units to the right, or
c units to the left (see the figures below.) You get the graphs of two
new functions, i.e., f (x − c) and f (x + c), respectively. For example,
moving the graph of the function f (x ) right by c units has the effect of
replacing x by x − c wherever it occurs in the formula, i.e., f (x − c).
For instance,

f (x ) = x 2 + x =⇒ f (x − 1) = (x − 1)2 + (x − 1) = x 2 − x .

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

The reasoning is similar if the graph is translated c units to the left.
2. Up-down translation.
The effect of up-down translation of the graph is much simpler to see.
Start with the graph of some function f (x ) by considering c > 0. Keep
the x −axis and y −axis fixed, but move the graph c units up, or c units
down (see the figures below.) You get the graphs of two new functions,
i.e., f (x ) + c and f (x ) − c). For example, moving the graph of f (x ) up
by c units has the effect of adding c units to each function value, and
therefore gives us the graph of the function f (x ) + c. The graph of the
new function is easy to describe; just take every point in the graph of
f (x ), and move it up a distance of c. That is, if (a, b) is a point in the
graph of f (x ), then (a, b + d) is a point in the graph of f (x ) + c.
Example:- Sketch the graph of f (x ) = x 2 .

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

The chart below describes how to use the graph of f (x ) to create the
graph of some similar functions. Throughout the chart, c > 1, and
(a, b) is a point in the graph of f (x ). Notice that, all of the "new func-
tions" in the chart differ from f (x ) by some algebraic manipulation that
happens after f (x ) plays its part as a function.

New How points in the graph of f (x ) Visual effect

function become points of new graph
f (x + c) (a, b) /−→ (a − c, b) shift left by c units
f (x − c) (a, b) /−→ (a + c, b) shift right by c units
f (cx ) (a, b) /−→ ( c1 a, b) shrink horizontally by 1
c units
f ( 1c x ) (a, b) /−→ (ca, b) stretch horizontally by c units
f (−x ) (a, b) /−→ (−a, b) flip over the y − axis

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

In a similar way to that of previous chart, we have another chart below.

New How points in the graph of f (x ) Visual effect

function become points of new graph
f (x ) + c (a, b) /−→ (a, b + c) shift up by c units
f (x ) − c (a, b) /−→ (a, b − c) shift down by c units
cf (x ) (a, b) /−→ (a, cb) stretch vertically by c units
1
c f (x ) (a, b) /−→ (a, c1 b) shrink vertically by 1
c units
−f (x ) (a, b) /−→ (a, −b) flip over the x − axis

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Geometry of inverse functions
Informally, two functions f (x ) and g(x ) are said to be inverses if each
reverses, or undoes the other. More precisely, we can define as
Definition:- Two functions f (x ) and g(x ) are said to be inverses if for
all x in the domain of g(x )
f ◦ g(x ) = f (g(x )) = x ,
and for all x in the domain of f (x )
g ◦ f (x ) = g(f (x )) = x .
Example:- f (x ) = x 3 and g(x ) = x 1/3 are inverses, since (x 3 )1/3 = x
and (x 1/3 )3 = x .
Example:- f (x ) = x 2 and g(x ) = x 1/2 are not inverses, since (x 2 )1/2 =
x is not true that (x 1/2 )2 = x for all real values of x . For instance, take
x = −2. However, what happens when we consider the values of
x ≥ 0?
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Generally, we look for functions y = f (x ) and g(y ) = x for which
g(f (x )) = x . If this is the case, then g is the inverse of f and we write
g = f −1 and f is the inverse of g written as f = g −1 .
How are the graphs √ of a function and its inverse related? We start by
graphing f (x ) = x. Next we want to graph the inverse of f , which is
g(y ) = x . But this is exactly the graph we just drew. To compare the
graphs of the functions f and f −1 we have to exchange x and y in the
equation for f −1 . So to compare f (x ) = x to its inverse we replace y ′ s
by x ′ s and graph g(x ) = x 2 .
Figure:√ The graph of f −1 (x ) = x 2 is the reflection of the graph of
f (x ) = x across the line y = x .
In general, if you have the graph of a function f (x ) you can find the
graph of f −1 by exchanging the x − and y −coordinates of all the points
on the graph. In other words, the graph of f −1 is the reflection of the
dy
graph of f across the line y = x . This suggests that if dx is the slope
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

of a line tangent to the graph of f , then
dx 1
= dy
dy
dx

is the slope of a line tangent to the graph of f −1 .

Example:- Find the inverse of
(2x − 6)
f (x ) = .
(3x + 7)
Solution:- First we write x = (2y − 6)/(3y + 7) and then solve for y
as
2y − 6
x=
3y + 7
x (3y + 7) = 2y − 6
3xy + 7x = 2y − 6
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

7x + 6 = 2y − 3xy
7x + 6 = y (2 − 3x )
7x + 6
=y
2 − 3x
7x+6
Finally, we say that f −1 (x ) = 2−3x .

Theorem (Inverse function theorem):- Let A be an open interval and

let f : A → R be injective and differentiable. If f ′ (x ) ̸= 0 for every x ∈ A
then f −1 is differentiable on f (A) and

(f −1 )′ (x ) = [f ′ (f −1 (x ))]−1 = 1/f ′ (f −1 (x )).

Proof:- Fix b ∈ f (A). Then there exists a unique a ∈ A, such that,

f (a) = b. For y ̸= b, let x = f −1 (y ). Since f is differentiable, it follows
that f and hence f −1 are continuous.
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Then
f −1 (b) − f −1 (y ) a−x 1
lim = lim = ′ .
y →b b−y x→a f (a) − f (x ) f (a)
dx 1
In Leibniz notation, this can be written as dy = dy /dx , which is easy to
remember since it looks like ordinary fractional algebra. We could also
prove the above result using implicit differentiation.
Let’s use implicit differentiation to find the derivative of the inverse
function.
y = f (x )
−1
f (y ) = x
d −1 d
(f (y )) = (x ) = 1
dx dx

By the chain rule, we have

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

d −1 dy
(f (y )) = 1,
dy dx
so,
d −1 1
(f (y )) = dy .
dy
dx

Implicit differentiation allows us to find the derivative of the inverse

function x = f −1 (y ) whenever we know the derivative of the original
function y = f (x ).

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Assumed knowledge:-

1 Radian measure for angles.

2 The domain of f ◦ g is the largest subset of Domain(g) so that

Range(g) ⊂ Domain(f ).

3 360◦ = 2π radians.

4 The functions sin, cos, tan, csc, sec, and cot.

π π π
Triangles for angels 6, 4, 3.
5

6 Pythagoras theorem.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Limit of a function.
Limit is one of the most powerful ideas ever created in mathematics to
observe the behavior of functions. Heavy hitting mathematical theo-
ries, like, differentiation and integration owe their existence to the idea
of the limit.
Suppose we wish to observe the behavior of a function around certain
input values to the function, i.e., values in the domain. Apart from
evaluating the function at that point, we could also look at what the
function is doing when we make the input values closer and closer
to the input value we want to study. If a strong pattern emerges and
the function looks like it is converging to a value, we would reasonably
expect the function to take that value at the point itself. Figuring out
these expectations is in essence what the theory of limits is all about.
Previously, you may have come across a definition of the limit being

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

described as what value a function tends to as x approaches a partic-
ular point. This description is good for understanding the basic idea we
are trying to capture with a limit, but without actually specifying what
“approaches" or “tends to" actually mean, any calculations often relied
on a leap of faith that functions behave nicely. However, many func-
tions behave in surprising ways, so we need a rigorous way to study
the concept of limit. The obvious place to start is to make the definition
rigorous.
Definition:-
Let f : (a, b) → R be a function on the open interval (a, b), c ∈ [a, b],
and L ∈ R. If for all real numbers ε with ε > 0, there exists a real
number δ (δ can depend on ε) with δ > 0, such that for all

x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ) with x ̸= c,

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

we have that
f (x ) ∈ (L − ε, L + ε),
then we say that the limit of f exists at c and the limit is L. Sometimes,
it is written as
lim f (x ) = L,
x→c
or
f (x ) → L, as x → c.
This definition might look scary at first, but a lot of it is just detail to
make it mathematically precise.
Remarks:-
1 Notice that, although the limit is defined at individual points, it is
telling us the behavior of what’s happening around the neighbors
of that point, and not at the point itself.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

2 Note that |x − c| < d is equivalent to x ∈ (c − d, c + d), so quite
often you will the definition of limit formulated using 0 < |x −c| < δ
and |f (x ) − L| < ε instead.

Example:-
ε
Let f (x ) = 3x + 1, ε > 0 and δ = 3. Then for all x such that 0 <
|x − 5| < δ, we have
ε
|f (x ) − 16| = |3x + 1 − 16| = |3x − 15| = 3|x − 5| < 3δ = 3 = ε.
3
Therefore,
lim f (x ) = 16.
x→5

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Definition:-
If we replace x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ) in the limit definition by (c, c + δ), then
we have the right sided limit and is written as

lim f (x ) = L.
x→c +

If we replace x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ) in the limit definition by (c − δ, c), then

we have the left sided limit and is written as

lim f (x ) = L.
x→c −

Notice the + and – superscripts on the c. If a right side limit exists at

c, then it is the value the function is approaching by only looking at
neighboring points which are larger than c. If a left side limit exists at
c, then it is the value the function is approaching by only looking at
neighboring points which are smaller than c.
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Theorem:-
limx→c f (x ) = L exists if and only if limx→c + f (x ) = L and limx→c − f (x ) =
L exist, and
lim+ f (x ) = lim f (x ) = L.
x→c x→c −

That is, the limit of f at c exists if and only if the left sided limit exists
at c, the right sided limit exists at c, and the limits are all the same
values.
Definition:-
|x|
1 What is happening to the function f (x ) = x as x → 0?
x
2 What is happening to the function f (x ) = x+|x| as x → 0?

Solution-1:-
Follow the limit by using the definition of mode function. Here,
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

|x | ±x
f (x ) = = ,
x x
x −x
f (x ) =
, f (x ) = ,
x x
x −x
lim f (x ) = , lim f (x ) = ,
x→0+ x x→0− x
lim f (x ) = 1, lim f (x ) = −1.
x→0+ x→0−

Thus the limit of the given function does not exist as x → 0.

Approaching infinity.
Consider f (x ) = x1 , defined on its natural domain.
As x approaches 0 from the right, the value of f (x ) is increasing with-
out bound. We write

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

lim f (x ) = ∞
x→0+

to denote that f (x ) increases towards infinity as x approaches from

the right.
As x approaches 0 from the left, the value of f (x ) is decreasing without
bound. We write
lim f (x ) = −∞
x→0−

to denote that f (x ) decreases towards infinity as x approaches from

the left.
Recall that in the definition of the limit, the limit value L needed to be a
real number. Since ∞ and −∞ are not real numbers, so no limit exist.
Even if they were real numbers, the right and left sided limits are not
equal. Hence, f (x ) has no limit as x → 0.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Limits of some “building block" functions.
The term building block here refers to some simple functions which
can be glued together to construct more complicated functions. For
example, f (x ) = 4x 2 − x is just the function g(x ) = x glued together
with itself in a special way. In fact,

f (x ) = 4x 2 − x = 4g(x )2 − g(x ).

Proposition:-

Let a and b be real numbers. Then we have

lim a = a, lim x = b,
x→b x→b
1 1
lim = ∞, lim = −∞.
x→0+ x x→0− x

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Laws of limits.
Let f (x ), g(x ) be two function. Assume limx→a f (x ) = L1 and limx→a g(x ) =
L2 . Then we have
) *
lim f (x ) ± g(x ) = L1 ± L2 ,
x→a

) *
lim f (x ) × g(x ) = L1 × L2 ,
x→a

+ ,
f (x ) L1
lim = , provided L2 ̸= 0,
x→a g(x ) L2

+ , -
-
lim n
f (x ) = n L1 .
x→a

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Theorem:-
For any polynomial

p(x ) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x 2 + ... + cn x n ,

and any real number a, we have

lim p(x ) = c0 + c1 a + c2 a2 + ... + cn an = p(a).

x→a

Definition:-
A rational function is a function of the form
p(x )
f (x ) = ,
q(x )

where, p(x ) and q(x ) are polynomials.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Example:-

x 3 − 10x + 5
f (x ) =
x2 − 4
is a rational function. The natural domain of f (x ) is all real numbers
excluding -2 and 2, i.e., R\{−2, 2}.
Proposition:-
Let
p(x )
f (x ) = ,
q(x )
be a rational function and a be any real number. Then we have
1 If q(a) ̸= 0 then limx→a f (x ) = f (a).
2 If q(a) = 0 and p(a) ̸= 0 then limx→a f (x ) does not exist (as a real
number).
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

3 If q(a) = 0 and p(a) = 0 then limx→a f (x ) may sometimes exist
(as a real number).
Example:-

x2 + 1
lim does not exist.
x→1 x − 1

x2 − x − 6 (x − 3)(x + 2) x +2
lim = lim = lim = 5.
x→3 x −3 x→3 x −3 x→3 1
Limits at infinity.
Consider what happens to the value of the function f (x ) = x 23x+1 as
the value of x gets larger. We observe that the numerator 3x starts to
get insignificant as x gets larger and larger, and the whole fraction is
converging towards zero.
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Note:-
If the value of f (x ) eventually just keeps growing larger and larger
without bounds, then we write

lim f (x ) = ∞.
x→∞

Notice that, the limit in this case does not actually exist, because ∞ is
not a real number, but we write this just as shorthand to note that the
function will eventually grow to be larger than any number we choose.
Proposition:-
Let p > 0. Then
1 1
lim = lim = 0.
x→∞ xp x→−∞ x p

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Proposition:-
Let n be a positive integer. Then
lim x n = ∞.
x→∞

If n is also an odd number. Then

lim x n = −∞,
x→−∞

otherwise, if n is even then we have

lim x n = ∞.
x→−∞

Remarks:- With polynomial fractions, as x → ∞ or x → −∞ it will

be highest term that will dominate the behavior. We can exploit this
idea to evaluate limits of rational functions by finding the highest power
term in the denominator, and dividing every single component of top
and bottom of fraction by this highest power to find the limit.
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Continuity:-
Here, we aim to study a nice class of functions called as continuous
functions. Previously, you may have been introduced to continuous
functions by the idea that if you had to draw a graph of the function
with a pen, then you would be able to do it without lifting the pen off
the paper and causing a jump in the graph somewhere.
Unfortunately, some functions are hard to draw and others behave er-
ratically, so we need a way to figure out whether a function is still con-
tinuous or not. Luckily, we can use the idea of limits to make this
concept precise. The beauty of the definition is that it allows us to
import almost all the results from the theory of limits and be able to
say things about continuous functions essentially for free, i.e., without
doing much extra work. This helps motivate the following definition of
continuity.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Definition:-
Let f : D → R be a function and c, L ∈ R. Then we say that f is
continuous at the point c if for all ε > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that
for all x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ),

f (x ) ∈ (L − ε, L + ε).

We say a function is continuous everywhere, or just continuous

if this holds for all c ∈ R, and continuous on an interval [a, b] if it
is continuous at every x ∈ [a, b]. Otherwise, we say that f has a
discontinuity at x = c, or that f is discontinuous at c.
Note:-
You may have noticed that apart from not having x ̸= c requirement,
everything else in the definition is identical to the definition of a limit.
Mathematicians can thus reprove continuity results from limit results
with hardly any more work.
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Maths translator.
A function f is continuous at a point c if the following three conditions
are met:
1 f (c) is defined.
2 limx→c f (x ) exists, i.e., limx→c − f (x ) = limx→c + f (x ) = L for some
L ∈ R.
3 limx→c f (x ) = f (c).
Remarks:-
1 All you need to remember is

lim f (x ) = f (c)
x→c

as this statement captures all three conditions.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

2 It is implied that if a function is continuous , then its natural domain
is all of R.
3 A function y = f (x ) is continuous at the interior c of its domain
if
lim f (x ) = f (c).
x→c
4 A function y = f (x ) is continuous at a left end-point a or is
continuous at a right end-point b of its domain if
lim f (x ) = f (a) or lim f (x ) = f (b), respectively.
x→a+ x→b−
5 Given how similar the definition of continuity and limits are, laws
of limits can be reworded in the context of continuity to tell us that
if two continuous functions have the same domain, then the sum
and product of continuous functions is continuous.
6 If f (x ), g(x ) are continuous functions, then f (x )/g(x ) is continu-
ous everywhere where the denominator is non-zero, and has dis-
continuities everywhere where the denominator is zero.
Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1
 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Example:-
Classify the discontinuities at c. Why does each not satisfy continuity?

y-axis

x-axis

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Example:-
% %
x 2 −4 x 2 −4
f (x ) = x−2 , if x ̸= 2
, f (x ) = x−2 , if x =
̸ 2
3, if x = 2 4, if x = 2.

Theorem:-
Let f , g be two functions. If limx→c g(x ) = L and f is continuous at L.
Then we have ) *
lim f g(x ) = f (L).
x→c

In other words, ) * )
lim f g(x ) = f lim g(x )).
x→c x→c

The same applies if the limit above is replaced by a left or right side
limit, or a limit at infinity.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Theorem:-
Let f , g be two functions, and c ∈ R. Then

1 If g is continuous at c and f is continuous at g(c), then the com-

position f ◦ g is continuous at c.
2 If the function g is continuous everywhere and the function f is
continuous everywhere, then the composition f ◦ g is continuous
everywhere.
3 The absolute value of a continuous function is again a continuous
function.

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1

 A review of limits, continuity, and differentiation
Asymptotes
Differentiation
Applications of differentiation
General theorems

Limit and continuity

Example:-
x 2 −2x−3
Let f (x ) = x 5 , g(x ) = x 2 +4x+3
. Then
+ ,5
) * x 2 − 2x − 3
lim f g(x ) = lim
x→−1 x→−1 x 2 + 4x + 3
..
.
) *
lim f g(x ) = −32
x→−1

Proposition:-
sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x
1 − cos x
lim = 0.
x→0 x

Dr. Shafiq Ur Rehman, UET, Lahore CALCULUS_2022_P1