EVOLUTION, THEORIES AND SPECIATION

Evolution is the change in the characteristics of a species

over several generations and relies on the process of
natural selection. The theory of evolution is based on the
idea that all species are related and gradually change over
time. It involves change in the heritable characteristics of
biological populations over successive generations. These
characteristics are the expressions of genes that are
passed on from parent to offspring during reproduction.

TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE

Hypothesis A proposed solution to a problem.

Or an explanation of a specific
phenomenon based on The high incidence of HIV-AIDS is due
evidence and observations to the lack of education about the
It is tested in a series of causes of the disease
experiments or by repeated
observation

Theory A well-substantiated explanation of Heliocentric theory - The sun is the

some aspect of the natural centre of the universe, around
world that has been observed which all the planets revolve
and can be supported by facts, Atomic theory – deals with the
laws, models, laws, structure of matter
generalisations, and tested
hypotheses.
Features that show possible common origin
of different organisms:

Common macromolecules in animals and plants offer the most

astounding evidence for biological evolution.

The code to translate nucleotide sequences into amino acid sequences is

essentially the same for all organisms

Found in all organisms

There are only 20 amino acids that make up all proteins and enzymes in
ALL living organisms. The similar composition and function points that -
Life on earth arose from common ancestry.
 Africa

Australia
South
America
New
Zealand

• Flightless birds show great similarities on different land masses but belong to
separate species
• Scientists claim that flightless birds were separated geographically when the
Gondwanaland broke apart
• The climate and habitats changed as a result of continental drift
• The flightless birds adapted to the changing environment and new species
developed
What is Evolution?
Microevolution describes the
small-scale changes within
gene pools over generations.
Macroevolution is the term
used to describe large scale
changes in form, as viewed in
the fossil record, involving
whole groups of species and
genera.
 Punctuated Equilibrium
◼ Punctuated equilibrium explains the speed at which
evolution takes place
• Evolution involves long periods of time where species
do not change or change gradually through natural
selection (known as equilibrium)
• This alternates with (is punctuated by) short periods of
time where rapid changes occur through natural
selection
• This may result in new species being formed in a short
period of time

Gradualism, changes in species is slow and gradual, occurring in small

periodic changes in the gene pool. The gradualism model depicts evolution
as a slow steady process in which organisms change and develop slowly
over time.
Punctuated Equilibrium, evolution occurs in spurts of relatively rapid
change with long periods of non-change. The punctuated equilibrium model
depicts evolution as long periods of no evolutionary change followed by
rapid periods of change.
Both are models for describing successive evolutionary changes due to the
mechanisms of evolution in a time frame.
 Observations

1. All organisms produce more offspring than survive

to adulthood
One of Darwin’s first observations was that all living things are
capable of producing more offspring than are needed to replace
their parents.

For example a female rabbit can produce up to seven kittens in

a litter, but they don’t all survive to become adults.
 Observations
2. Populations remain more or less constant in numbers
Darwin’s second observation was that the numbers of many different
species of animals and plants tend to stay fairly constant over long
periods of time.

For example, herds of many animals live on the plains of Africa,

wildebeest, zebra, gazelles etc. Each year many of the females give
birth to young, but the overall population sizes of these species stay
the same.
There are a number of factors which keep the population numbers
stable, including competition for food, predation and disease
 Observations
3. Members of the same species show variation in
characteristics
Darwin’s third observation was that all living things vary slightly
in colour, shape, size or behaviour.

Below are three different colourings and skin patterns found in

the giraffe.

West African giraffe Reticulated giraffe Thornicroft’s giraffe

 Observations
4. Some characteristics are inherited and so passed
on to the next generation
Darwin’s fourth observation was that many features are passed
on from parent to offspring.

Some inherited characteristics

are quite easy to see in
humans:
Eye colour
Hair colour
Some are not so easy to see:
Blood group
 Survival of the fittest
The individuals that are best adapted to their environment are
most likely to survive and have the chance to reproduce,
therefore passing on their useful adaptations to the next
generation.

Those individuals that are the least well adapted do not survive
long enough to breed.

These ideas formed the basis of Darwin’s theory of evolution by

natural selection.

Male African lion Silverback mountain gorilla

 Conclusions
From his four observations Darwin was able to deduce two
main conclusions.
A. All organisms are involved in a struggle for survival.

B. Some individuals are better adapted to their environment

than others.

Polar bears fighting Pygmy seahorse camouflaged against fan coral

▪ As a result of variation✓in the giraffe population
some giraffes have longer necks✓ than others
▪ Environmental change✓/competition for resources
occurred
▪ causing those with shorter necks to die✓
▪ and those with longer necks to survive✓
▪ This is natural selection✓/survival of the fittest
▪ The genes✓/genotype for longer necks
▪ were passed on to subsequent generations✓ most
of which now have long necks
 Differences between de Lamarck and Darwin's theories pg 199

Lamarck’s Theory Darwin’s

Variation in offspring brought about by Offspring showed variation from their
individuals in the population changing moment of production

Change brought about because Change as a result of environmental

Individuals wanted to change factors working randomly on the
(deterministic theory) population
Change brought about by individuals Change brought by nature selecting
in the population because of those that are best suited to the
adaptation to environment environment to survive –Natural
selection
Individuals in the population change The population as a whole changes

Changes brought about by adaptation Characteristic are passed on from

to the environment are inherited from generation to generation to enable
parent to offspring individuals to survive in the environment
Natural selection (NB)
◼ Natural selection is the driving force of evolution
◼ It requires certain conditions
1) Variation in the organisms of a population
2) Characteristics resulting in variation must be hereditary
◼ Certain environmental factors exert pressure on the
population – called selection pressures
◼ natural selection is triggered by the need for the population to
adapt to the natural environment
◼ Examples of selection pressures
 Competition for food, water , space, mating partners etc
 Predation
 Changes in temperature
 Diseases
 Limited light, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water
Leopard
- At first the entire population was not having the spots.
- A few leopards developed the sports due to mutations.
- The spots helped them with camouflaging, more individuals with
spots survived than those without.
- Over a long period of time more and more individuals with spots
survived from generation to generation.
- The spots helped them a lot with successful hunting.
Artificial Selection / Selective breeding

◼ Deliberate breeding of plants and animals for desired

characteristics that would not necessarily benefit the
survival of the descendants
◼ Humans select the desirable characteristics and
therefore serve as the environmental trigger
◼ It differs from natural selection in that humans determine
which characteristic must be selected whereas in
natural selection selected characteristics are those that
are best suited to the environmental conditions

Artificial Selection / Selective breeding

◼ Examples
 Mating a cow that produces large amounts of milk
with a bull whose mother and grandmother are high
milk producers
 Mating hens that are high egg producers with roosters
whose mothers and grandmothers are high egg
producers
 Deliberate selection of polyploid plants resulted in
bigger plants of watermelons, marigolds and
snapdragons
 All present day dogs irrespective of how different they look have
a common ancestor (grey wolf (Canis lupus). The large variety of
dog breeds have been bred over the years by selection of
different characteristics as desired by humans
Evidence: Comparative Anatomy

Forelimb Hind Limb

The pentadactyl Humerus

Femur (thigh)
(upper arm)
(5 digit) limb found in
most vertebrates has the Ulna
Fibula
same general bone
structure. Radius
Tibia
This similarity of structure
Carpals Tarsals
is called homology. (wrist) (ankle)

Homologies are indicative Metacarpals Metatarsals

of common ancestry. (palm) (sole)

Phalanges Phalanges
(fingers) (toes)

Note that forelimbs and hind limbs have different

names for equivalent bones.
 Evidence of evolution – modification by descent

◼ Homologous structures
◼ Forelimbs of vertebrates
 Characteristics are shared by
related organisms because they
have inherited them from a
common ancestor
◼ The way inherited characteristics
change over time is referred to as
modification by descent
◼ An example is the similarity in the
basic forelimb (pentadactyl limb)
structure of mammals
◼ Example of divergent evolution
 Examples of vertebrates with homologous structures

➢ Homologous structures suggest that these organisms developed from a

common ancestor but followed different evolutionary routes
➢ This is called adaptive radiation – environmental changes cause
numerous extinctions and surviving species start to occupy new
ecological niches pg194
➢ Therefore - all mammals originated from common ancestor with a
pentadactyl limb (a limb with five fingers or toes)
➢ This is known as divergent evolution - tending to develop in different
directions/dissimilar
Analogy in Eye Structure
Eyes in cephalopods
(such as octopus) and Mammalian eye
mammals have the same Iris
function and are
structurally similar, but Lens
have evolved from
different origins. Cornea

Retina

Octopus eye Retina

Iris

Lens

Cornea
 Analogous Structures
Not all similarities between species
are inherited from a common
ancestor.
Fins

Structures that have the same

function in different organisms may
come from quite different origins.
Flippers
This phenomenon is termed
analogy.
Analogous structures do not
imply an evolutionary relationship,
but may indicate convergence.
Examples:
Wings
Eye structure in octopus and mammals.

Wings in birds and butterflies.

Fins in fish and flippers in mammals

Evidence from Comparative analogy

◼ A distinction is made between:

 Homologous structures – Similar body
structures with the same basic body plan, that
perform different functions & share a common
ancestor
 Analogous structures – body structures that
perform the same function in different
organisms but did not originate from a
common ancestor

Differences between homologous and analogous

structures

◼ Homologous structures ◼ Analogous structures

◼ Similar basic structure ◼ Different basic structure
◼ Do not always have the ◼ Have the same function
same function
◼ Have a common ancestor ◼ Do not have a common
ancestor
◼ Evidence of divergent ◼ Evidence of convergent
evolution evolution
Speciation
◼ Members of a species share a gene pool
with free gene flow
◼ Gene pool – total number of alleles of all
reproductive individuals in a particular
population
◼ Gene flow – the exchange of alleles
between individuals

Speciation
Speciation refers to the
process by which new species Different species of
are formed. swallowtail butterflies in
the genus Papilio
Speciation occurs when
gene flow has ceased
between populations where
it previously existed.
Gene flow—also called
migration—is any movement of
genes from one population to
another.
Speciation is brought about by
the development of
reproductive isolating
mechanisms which maintain
the integrity of the new gene
pool.
 Evidence of evolution – Variation
◼ Genetic variation occurs within a species with the result that
organisms of the same species differ in appearance
◼ It is essential for natural selection as the environment ‘selects’
the best adapted organism for survival from a wide range of
genetically different individuals
◼ Genetic variation is caused by: NB
 Crossing over and Random arrangement of homologous
chromosomes in meiosis
 Mutations – leads to changes gene structure leading to an
altered phenotype
 Reproduction – random mating of individuals and successful
fertilisation in a population results in a variety of gene
combinations
 Random fusion of male and female gametes results in different
gene combinations which increases variation in species

List the sources of variation in

populations.
◼ Random
assortment/segregation/
recombination of chromosomes OR meiosis
during meiosis in the formation of
gametes
Crossing over
◼ Chance/random fertilisation of
gametes/sexual reproduction
◼ Mutation
◼ Outbreeding/Gene flow
 Describe how allopatric speciation occurs when
a population becomes separated by a
geographical barrier.

◼ The population will split up into two groups

◼ and each group adapts to the new environmental factors/
develops separately
◼ each group undergoes natural selection independently
◼ Develops differently
◼ each group may become genotypically
◼ and phenotypically different
◼ which might prevent them from interbreeding/become
reproductively isolated leading to the formation of a new
species
Geographical
Barriers
Geographical barriers
isolate species and prevent
interbreeding.
Geographical barriers
include mountains, rivers,
and oceans. Geographical
features that may be
barriers to some species
may not be barriers to
others.
Although they are in the same region, the white
tailed antelope squirrel inhabits desert to the north
of the canyon, while Harris’s antelope squirrel
(above) has a more limited range to the south.
SYMPATRIC (SAME GEOGRAPHICAL AREA)
Type of barrier Example 1

Adaptation to Two species of orchid have different

different length nectar tubes and are
pollinators pollinated by different species of
moths.
Breeding at Two species of mayflies emerge
different times during different weeks in springtime.
of the year

Species- Two similar species of birds have

specific different mating rituals.
courtship
behaviour

Infertile Two species of frogs are mated in

Horse x donkey
offspring the lab and produce viable, but
= mule
sterile, offspring.
 Types of Speciation
Several models have been proposed to
account for new species among sexually
reproducing organisms:
Allopatric speciation: Populations
become geographically separated,
each being subjected to different
natural selection pressures, and
finally establishing reproductive
isolating mechanisms.
Sympatric speciation: A population
forms a new species within the same
area as the parent species.

Gene flow has been reduced between flies

that feed on different food varieties, even
though they both live in the same geographic
area.
 It has been noted that closely related species may
differ in colour. Mates are selected according to colour
e.g. in one population, the females selected red males
and in another blue males. The fish may also be
plankton feeds, algae feeders, predators, scavengers,
parasite cleaners and egg stealers. It also seems that
basic design of the fish where they have a second pair
of jaws (as shown in the diagram below) allows cichlids
to diversify and feed in many different ways

Eats fish Eats baby Eats Eats Eats

scales and fish and molluscs small insect
fins eggs fish larvae
1. Resistance to antibiotics in bacteria

• Antibiotic resistance is the ability of bacterium to survive the

effects of antibiotics and to continue living and reproducing

The evolution of drug resistance in bacteria

Bacterium
reproducing

Mutation
(resistant to
penicillin)
Mutant

survive
penicillin
treatment

Killed by penicillin

Population now
resistant to
penicillin
How have resistant strains of TB
developed?
• The emergence of MDR-TB and XDR-TB is a direct
consequence of incomplete treatments and
evolutionary processes.
• Lack of human discipline created an environment
that selected for the survival of drug-resistant mutant
TB bacteria.