Fourth Stage Power System Analysis

Un Symmetrical Faults (In a 3-Phase System)

1. Symmetrical components.
The electrical power system normally operates in a balanced three-phase sinusoidal
steady-state mode. However, certain situations can cause unbalanced operations. The most
severe of these would be a fault or short circuit. Examples may include a tree in contact with
a conductor, a lightning strike, or a downed power line.
In 1918, Dr. C. L. Fortescue wrote a paper entitled “Method of Symmetrical Coordinates
Applied to the Solution of Polyphase Networks.” Dr. Fortescue described how the
unbalanced 3-phase voltages (or currents) could be transformed into 3 sets of balanced 3-
phase components called “Symmetrical Components.”
So, unbalanced three-phase systems can be split into three balanced components: Positive
Sequence (balanced and having the same phase sequence as the unbalanced supply), Negative
Sequence (balanced and having the opposite phase sequence to the unbalanced supply), and
Zero Sequence (balanced but having the same phase and hence no phase sequence). These
are known as the Symmetrical Components or the Sequence Components and are shown in
Figure (1).

Figure (1): Symmetrical Components of unbalanced 3-phase system

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 The un-symmetric and unbalanced conditions shown in Figure (1) can be resolved into
the balanced conditions shown in Figure (2) by using sequence components to represent the
three-phase electrical system to reduce the complexity in solving for electrical quantities
during power system disturbances.
Vc1=Va1∠120
= a Va1

Vb2=Va2∠120
1200 = a Va2
1200

Vc2=Va2∠240
Vb1=Va1∠240
= a2 Va2
= a2 Va1
Figure 2: Symmetrical Components
Fortescue’s Theorem: An unbalanced set of N-related phasors can be resolved into N
systems of phasors called the symmetrical components of the original phasors. For a three-
phase system (i.e. N = 3), the three sets are:
1. Positive Sequence - three phasors, equal in magnitude, 120o apart, with the same sequence
(a-b-c) as the original phasors.
2. Negative Sequence - three phasors, equal in magnitude, 120o apart, with the opposite
sequence (a-c-b) of the original phasors.
3. Zero Sequence - three identical phasors (i.e. equal in magnitude, with no relative phase
displacement).
The original set of phasors is written in terms of the symmetrical components as follows:
V a =V a 0 +V a1 +V a 2

V b =V b 0 +V b 1 +V b 2

V c =V c 0 +V c 1 +V c 2
Where 0 indicates zero sequence, 1 indicates positive sequence, and 2 indicates negative
sequence.
The relationship among the sequence components for a-b-c are
Positive Sequence Negative Sequence Zero Sequence

V b 1 =V a1 240 V b 2 =V a 2  120

V a 0 =V b 0 =V c 0
V c 1 =V a1 120 V c 2 =V a 2  240

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The symmetrical components of all a-b-c voltages are usually written in terms of the
symmetrical components of phase a by defining;

1+ a2 + a = 0
1 = 1.0 + j 0.0 1+ a2 + a = 0
a − a2 = j 3
a = 1  120 a + a = −1
2
a2 − a = − j 3
a = 1  240
2
1 + a = 1  60
1 − a = 3  − 30
a 3 = 1  360 = 1  0 1 + a 2 = 1  − 60
1 − a 2 = 3  30
Substituting into the previous equations for Va, Vb, and Vc yields
V a =V a 0 +V a1 +V a 2

V b =V a 0 + a 2V a1 + a V a 2

V c =V a 0 + a V a1 + a 2V a 2
And the same for currents.
I a = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2

I b = I a 0 + a 2 I a1 + a I a 2

I c = I a 0 + a I a1 + a 2 I a 2
In matrix form, the above equations become;
V a  1 1 1  V a 0 
    
V b  = 1 a a  V a1 
2

V c  1 a a 2  V a 2 

−1
V abc = T V 012 , and V 012 = T V abc
Where, T symmetrical transformation matrix
So, transformation matrix T is
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑇 = [1 𝑎 2 𝑎 ] , and 𝑇 −1 = [1 𝑎 𝑎2 ]
3
1 𝑎 𝑎2 1 𝑎2 𝑎

𝑉𝑎0 𝑉𝑎
1 1 1 1
𝑉𝑎1 = [1 𝑎 𝑎2 ] 𝑉𝑏
3
1 𝑎2 𝑎
[𝑉𝑎2 ] [ 𝑉𝑐 ]
Thus, these equations may be manipulated to solve for V0 , V1 , and V2 in terms of Va , Vb ,
and Vc

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 1
𝑉𝑎0 = (𝑉 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐 )
3 𝑎
1
𝑉𝑎1 = (𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎𝑉𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑐 )
3
1
𝑉𝑎2 = (𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑎𝑉𝑐 )
3
The same equations are used for currents.
1
𝐼𝑎0 = (𝐼 + 𝐼𝑏 + |𝐼𝑐 )
3 𝑎
1
𝐼𝑎1 = (𝐼𝑎 + 𝑎𝐼𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝑐 )
3
1
𝐼𝑎2 = (𝐼𝑎 + 𝑎2 𝐼𝑏 + 𝑎𝐼𝑐 )
3
If Vabc represents a balanced set or phase voltage.

(i.e. 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑎 ∙ 1∠240∘ = 𝑎2 𝑉𝑎
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎 ∙ 1∠ + 120∘ = 𝑎𝑉𝑎 )
Then substituting into 𝑉012 = 𝑇 −1 ∙ 𝑉abc yields;

𝑉𝑎0 𝑉𝑎
1 1 1 1 0
= [1 𝑎 2 ] [𝑎 2 𝑉 ] = [𝑉 ]
𝑉𝑎1 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
3
1 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎𝑉𝑎 0
[𝑉𝑎2 ]
Hence, balanced voltages or currents have only positive sequence components, and the
positive sequence components equal the corresponding phase voltages or currents.

H.W
The operator a is defined as a = 1∠ 120; show that
(1 + a )
(a) = 1  120
(1 + a 2 )
(1 − a )2
(b) = 3  -180
(1 + a )2
(c) (a − a )(a − a ) = 3 0
2 2

2. Power associated with Sequence Components.

With phase components, power in a single phase is expressed as;
Pphase =V  I cos 

If Va, Vb, and Vc are the line to neutral voltages at the terminals of a 3-PH cct, and
Ia, Ib and Ic are the currents of the circuit, then the complex power in the cct is
shown below. Thus, in three phase, P = √3 VL IL cosφ or 3 Vp Ip cosφ for a
balanced three-phase system. However, with an unbalanced system, this is not

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possible and we would have to write the power as the addition of the powers in the
three phases.

𝑆𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 𝑉𝑎𝑛 𝐼 𝑎∗ + 𝑉𝑏𝑛 𝐼 𝑏∗ + 𝑉𝑐𝑛 𝐼 𝑐∗ = 𝑉𝑎𝑏𝑐

𝑇 ∗
⋅ 𝐼 𝑎𝑏𝑐
 I a 
 
S s = V an V bn V cn   I b 
 
 I c 
or

V an 
T
 I a 
 
S s = V bn  I b 
V cn   
 I c 

S s =V pT  I p

Where, T symmetrical transformation matrix, ((*)) = conjicate, ((VT)) = transpose of voltage.

S p = [T ]T  [V s ]T  [T ]  [I s ]

S p = V sT [T T T  ]  I s
T 
1 1 1  1 1 1 
T T T  = 1 a 2 a   1 a 2 a 
1 a a 2  1 a a 2 

1 1 1  1 1 1 
T T T  = 1 a 2 a   1 a a 2 
1 a a 2  1 a 2 a 

3 0 0
T T = 0 3 0 
T 

0 0 3 

So,

1 0 0   I a 0 


 
S p = V a 0 V a1 V a 2   3  0 1 0    I a1 
0 0 1   I a2 

S p = 3 V a 0 I a0 + 3 V a1I a1 + 3 V a 2 I a2

This result can also be expected, as there are 3 phases in each of the sequence components
taking the same power.

Thus, 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑐 = 3(𝑉𝑎0 𝐼 𝑎0 cosφ + 𝑉𝑎1 𝐼 𝑎1 cosφ + 𝑉𝑎2 𝐼 𝑎2 cosφ)

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Example.
𝐼𝑓 𝑉𝑎 = 5∠53∘ , 𝑉𝑏 = 7∠ − 164∘ , 𝑉𝑐 = 7∠105∘ , find the symmetrical components. The
phase components are shown in the phasor form in Fig. below

Solution:
Solve for the zero-sequence component:
1
𝑉𝑎0 = (𝑉 + 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑉𝑐 )
3 𝑎
1
= (5∠53∘ + 7∠ − 164∘ + 7∠105∘ )
3
= 3.5∠122∘
𝑉𝑏0 = 3.5∠122∘
𝑉𝑐0 = 3.5∠122∘
Solve for the positive sequence component:
1
𝑉𝑎1 = (𝑉𝑎 + 𝑎𝑉𝑏 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑐 )
3
1
= (5∠53∘ + (1∠120∘ ⋅ 7∠ − 164∘ ) + (1∠240∘ ⋅ 7∠105∘ ))
3
= 5.0∠ − 10∘
𝑉𝑏1 = 5.0∠ − 130∘
𝑉𝑐1 = 5.0∠110∘
Solve for the negative sequence component:
1
𝑉𝑎2 = (𝑉 + 𝑎2 𝑉𝑏 + 𝑎𝑉𝑐 )
3 𝑎
1
= (5∠53∘ + (1∠240∘ ⋅ 7∠ − 164∘ ) + (1∠120∘ ⋅ 7∠105∘ ))
3
= 1.9∠92∘
𝑉𝑏2 = 1.9∠ − 148∘
𝑉𝑐2 = 1.9∠−28∘

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Example:

The two sequence components and the corresponding phase voltage of a 3-ph system is Va0 =1∠-
600 V; Va1=2∠00 V; & Va = 3 ∠00 V. Determine the other phase voltages.

Solution:

Va = Va0 + Va1 + Va2

Va2 = Va – Va0 – Va1 = 1 ∠600 V
Vb = Va0 + a2Va1 + a Va2 = 3 ∠ -1200 V
Vc = Va0 + a Va1 + a2 Va2 = 0 V

Example:

If three-phase voltages of a three-phase system are Va = 230∠0, Vb = 210∠-110, and Vc =

190∠110. Determine the sequence components of the voltage.

Solution;

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Example:

If Given V0 = 3.5 ∠122, V1= 5.0 ∠-10, V2= 1.9 ∠92, find the phase sequence components.

Solution.
H.W
Example:

A Y-connected load has balanced currents with a, c, b sequence given by;

 I a  10 0 
 
I p =  I b  = 10 120  A
 I c  10 − 120

Calculate the sequence currents.

Solution;

Example:
A three-phase line feeding a balanced-Y load has one of its phases (phase b) open. The load
neutral is grounded, and the unbalanced line currents are

Calculate the sequence currents and the neutral current.

Solution

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Example:

In the three-phase system shown in Figure below, phase a is on no load and phases b and c
are short-circuited to ground. The following currents are given: Ib = 91.65 ∠160.90, In = 60
∠900
Find the symmetrical components of current I0a, I1a, and I2a.

Solution

H.W

3. Sequence Impedances of Synchronous Generator

Figure (3) depicts an unloaded synchronous machine (generator or motor) grounded through
a reactor (impedance Zn). Ea, Eb and Ec are the induced EMFs of the three phases when a
fault (not shown in the figure) takes place at machine terminals currents Ia, Ib and Ic flow to
neutral from ground via Zn. Unbalance line current can be resolved into three symmetrical
components, Ia1, Ia2, and Ia0

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 Figure (3); Circuit of an unloaded generator grounded through reactance.

3.1 Positive Sequence Impedance and Network

If the machine short circuit takes place from unloaded conditions, the terminal voltages
constitute the positive sequence voltage. If the short circuit occurs from a loaded condition
the voltage behind an appropriate reactance (sub-transient, transient or synchronous)
constitutes the positive sequence voltage.

The positive sequence voltage of terminal a to the reference bus is given by;

Val = Ea - Zal Ial

3.2 Negative Sequence Impedance and Network
Negative sequence network models of a synchronous machine, on a three-phase and single-
phase basis, are shown in Fig. 5 (a and b), respectively the reference bus is of course at
neutral potential which is the same as ground potential. From Fig. b the negative sequence
voltage of terminal a to the reference bus is
Va2 = - Z2 Ia2

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 Figure 5; Negative sequence network of a synchronous machine

3.3 Zero Sequence Impedance and Network

Zero sequence network models on a three- and single-phase basis are shown in Figures (6. A
and b). In Fig. a, the current flowing in the impedance Zn between neutral and ground is In =
3Iao. The zero-sequence voltage of terminal a to ground, the reference bus. is therefore

Figure 6; Zero sequence network of a synchronous machine

Thus, the zero-sequence voltage drop from point a to the ground is given by:

Va0 = (-Ia0Zg0 – 3Ia0Zn),

Where Zg0 is the zero-sequence impedance of the generator.

Thus, the zero-sequence network, which is a single-phase equivalent circuit assumed to carry
only one phase, must have a zero-sequence impedance of

Z0 = (Zg0 +3Zn).

To have the same voltage from a to reference bus. The reference bus here is at ground
potential. From Fig. b zero sequence voltage of point a to the reference bus is

Va0 = - Ia0 Z0

4. Single-line diagrams for network components

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(a) Generator
The generator may, in general, be represented by the star-connected equivalent with possibly
a neutral-to-earth reactance as shown in the figure below, together with the three-phase
diagrams for the positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence equivalent circuits.
The neutral path is not shown in the positive and negative sequence circuits as the neutral
current is always zero for these balanced sequences. Also, by design, the generator generates
a balanced voltage supply and hence only the positive sequence will be present in the supply.

Sequence component networks of generator

Since the 3 component networks are balanced, they may be represented by single-line
diagrams in fault calculations.

Single-Line Networks for Sequences of Generator

(b) Single windings

Consider each of the simple types of windings for the zero-sequence path. These diagrams
are shown, along with the zero-sequence single-line diagram in the figure below.

Single-Line Networks for Sequences of Generator

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The unearthed star connection does not provide a path for the zero-sequence current to pass
across, and hence in the single-line diagram, there is no connection to the reference. With an
earthed star connection, the winding permits a zero-sequence current to flow, and hence is
shown with a direct connection to the reference. The earthed star with impedance is similar
except that 3 times the neutral impedance appears in the zero-sequence path. The delta
connection on the other hand does not permit any zero-sequence current in the line
conductors but permits a circulating current. This effect is shown by a closed path to the
reference.
(c) Transformers
The equivalent circuit of the transformer would be a single reactance in the case of positive
sequence and negative sequence for a two-winding transformer, but highly dependent on the
winding connection for the zero sequence. The transformer would be a combination of single
windings. The magnetizing impedance is taken as an open circuit for fault studies.
Two winding (primary and secondary), three-phase transformers may be categorized into:
(i) Star-Star,
(ii) Earthed Star – Star,
(iii) Earthed Star – Earthed Star,
(iv) Delta–Star,
(v) Delta – Earthed Star,
(vi) Delta – Delta.
The figure below shows the zero-sequence diagrams of the transformers.

Single-Line Networks for Sequences of Two-Winding Transformers

13
Considering the transformer as a whole, it can be seen that the single-line diagrams indicate
the correct flow of the zero-sequence current from primary to secondary.
Three phases, three winding have an additional tertiary winding, and may be represented by a
single line diagram corresponding to the ampere-turn balance, or power balance.
NP IP + NS IS + NT IT = 0 or VP IP + VS IS + VT IT = 0
This may be represented by three reactances connected in T, giving the general single-line
diagram for fault studies for the 3-winding transformer, as shown in the figure below.

Three-Winding Transformer

The positive sequence and negative sequence diagrams would have a direct connection to the
T connection of reactance from P, S and T.
The zero-sequence network would again be built up from the single winding arrangements
described and would yield the single line diagrams given in the following section, and other
combinations as shown in Fig. below.

14
 Single-Line Networks for Sequences of Three-Winding Transformers

A particular point to keep in mind is that what is generally available from measurements for a
3-winding transformer would be the impedances across a pair of windings. (ie. ZPS, ZPT, and
ZST ), with the third winding on an open circuit. Thus, we could relate the values to the
effective primary, secondary and tertiary impedances (ZP, ZS and ZT ) as follows.

Zps = ZP + ZS
ZpT = ZP + ZT
ZST = ZS + ZT
The values of ZP, ZS and ZT can then be determined as
1
𝑍𝑃 = (𝑍𝑃𝑆 + 𝑍𝑃𝑇 − 𝑍𝑆𝑇 ),
2
1
𝑍𝑆 = (𝑍𝑃𝑆 + 𝑍𝑆𝑇 − 𝑍𝑃𝑇 ),
2

15
 1
𝑍𝑇 = (𝑍𝑃𝑇 + 𝑍𝑆𝑇 − 𝑍𝑃𝑆 )
2
As in the case of the 2-winding transformer, 3Zn is included wherever earthing of a neutral
point is done through an impedance Zn.

Example:

Draw the three sequence networks for the transmission network shown in the figure below.

The Positive sequence network is drawn similarly to the single line diagram with the
generator and the synchronous motor being replaced by their internal emf and impedance.
This is shown in the figure below.

Positive sequence diagram

The negative sequence network is drawn as in the figure below.

Negative sequence diagram

The zero-sequence network is drawn in the figure below.

16
Zero sequence diagram

17