Distributed Computing Taxonomy

➢ Distributed computing is the method of making multiple computers work together to solve
a common problem. It makes a computer network appear as a powerful single computer
that provides large-scale resources to deal with complex challenges.
➢ It is a system where multiple computers, often geographically dispersed, collaborate to
solve a problem that is beyond their individual computing capabilities.
➢ Distributed systems bring many advantages over single system computing. The following
are some of them.
• Scalability
• Availability
• Consistency
• Transparency
• Efficiency
➢ In a distributed computing system, 'node', is self-sufficient, meaning it operates
independently while also contributing to the overall goal.
➢ The nodes communicate with each other through various forms of messaging like sending
data, signals, or instructions.
➢ This communication allows the network of computers to operate as a coherent system,
despite each node working independently.
➢ Each processor has its own local memory and all the processors communicate with each
other over a network.

Fig 1: Distributed computing

➢ Under the umbrella term of distributed computing, there are different distributed
architectures like
 • Cluster Computing
• Grid Computing
• Peer-to-Peer Computing and
• Other methods

Fig 2: Types of Distributed computing

1. Cluster Computing

⮚The term “cluster” refers to the connection of computers or servers to each other over a
network to form a larger “computer”, which is based on the distributed computing architecture.

⮚Such a computing cluster is usually made up of standardized servers, workstations, or even

consumer-grade PCs, linked to each other over LAN or WAN.

⮚Some advantages include processing speed, cost efficiency, Scalability, and increased
resource availability.

⮚One popular implementation of cluster computing is Google search engine

Fig 3: Cloud computing

Example: Every time you enter a query into your web browser, the task is actually being
distributed to different nodes in different locations. The nodes conduct their search
independently; no communication between them is necessary. The results are then aggregated
and returned to the user device.

➢ Types of Cluster computing

Fig 4: Types of Cloud computing

➢ The types of cluster computing are described below:
a. Load-balancing clusters: Workload is distributed across multiple installed
servers in the cluster network.
b. High availability (HA) clusters: A collection group that maintains very high
Availability. Computers pulled from these systems are considered to be very
much reliable and may not face downtime, even possibly in any instance.
c. High-performance (HP) clusters: This computer networking tactic use
supercomputers and Cluster computing to resolve complex and highly advanced
computation problems.
2. Grid Computing
➢ Grid computing is defined as a type of computing where it constitutes a network of
computers that work together to perform tasks that may be difficult for a single machine to
handle.
➢ All the computers on that network work under the same umbrella and are termed as a virtual
super computer.
➢ The tasks they work on is of either high computing power and consist of large data sets.
➢ All communication between the computer systems in grid computing is done on the “data
grid”.
➢ The goal of grid computing is to solve more high computational problems in less time and
improve productivity.
 Example: X=(4x7)+(3x9)+(2x5)

Fig 5: Grid computing

3. Peer to Peer Computing
➢ Peer-to-peer (P2P) is a decentralized network architecture in which participants, called
peers, interact directly with each other without needing a central authority or server.
➢ In a P2P network, each participant acts as both a client and a server, enabling them to share
resources and services directly with other peers.
➢ Peer-to-peer refers to the direct sharing of resources and information between devices or
users without relying on a central server.
➢ The tasks are equally divided amongst the nodes. Each node connected in the network
shares an equal workload.
➢ For the network to stop working, all the nodes need to individually stop working. This is
because each node works independently
Example: BitTorrent, Bitcoin

Fig 6: P2P computing

4. Utility Computing
➢ Utility computing is defined as a service provisioning model that offers computing
resources to clients as and when they require them on an on-demand basis.
➢ The service provider charges only as per the consumption of the services, rather than a
fixed charge or a flat rate.
➢ The term utility is the utility services like water, telephone, electricity, and gas that are
provided by any utility company.
➢ Examples of these IT services are storage, computing power, and applications.

Fig 7: Utility computing

5. Cloud computing
➢ Cloud computing is the delivery of computing services – including servers, storage,
databases, networking, software, analytics, and intelligence – over the Internet (“the
cloud”) to offer faster innovation, flexible resources, and economies of scale.
➢ You typically pay only for cloud services you use, helping you lower your operating costs,
run your infrastructure more efficiently, and scale as your business needs change.
➢ Cloud computing provides a superior alternative to traditional information technology,
including these areas:
a. Cost – eliminate capital expenses
b. Speed – instantly provision space for development and testing
c. Global-scale – scale elastically
d. Productivity – increased collaboration, predictable performance, and customer
isolation
e. Performance – better price/performance for cloud-native workloads
f. Reliability – fault-tolerant, scalable, distributed systems across all services
6. Edge Computing
➢ Edge computing is the process of bringing information storage and computing abilities
closer to the devices that produce that information and the users who consume it.
➢ Traditionally, applications have transmitted data from smart devices like sensors and
smartphones to a central data center for processing.
➢ However, the unprecedented complexity and scale of data have outpaced network
capabilities.
➢ By shifting processing capabilities closer to users and devices, edge computing systems
significantly improve application performance, reduce bandwidth requirements, and give
faster real-time insights.
➢ Some benefits of edge computing.
a) Reduced latency/increased speed
b) Improved data security
c) Increased productivity
d) Reduced costs
e) Reliable performance

Fig 8: Edge Computing

7. Fog Computing
➢ Fog computing extends the concept of cloud computing to the network edge, making it
ideal for the internet of things (IoT) and other applications that require real-time
interactions.
➢ Fog computing is defined as the type of computing that acts a computational structure
between the cloud and the data producing devices.
➢ The cloud is connected to the physical host via a network connection in fog computing.
The storage capacity, computational power, data, and applications are located in this middle
space.
➢ These functionalities focus on the host, place close to it, and make processing faster as it is
done close to where data is created.
➢ The goal of fog computing is to improve the overall network efficiency and performance

Fig 9: Fog computing

Edge Computing Vs Fog Computing

Edge Computing Fog Computing

Location: Edge computing processes data Location: Fog computing extends the cloud
directly at or near the source of data computing model to the edge of the network
generation, such as sensors, IoT devices, or but involves intermediate nodes (fog nodes)
user devices. between the edge devices and the central
cloud.
Purpose: It aims to reduce latency and Purpose: It provides additional processing,
bandwidth usage by performing data storage, and networking capabilities closer to
processing tasks locally, thereby enabling the edge devices but not directly on them. Fog
faster decision-making and response times. computing is designed to enhance the
performance and efficiency of edge computing
by offloading some tasks to nearby fog nodes.
Scalability: May face challenges with Scalability: More scalable due to the
scalability as each device needs sufficient intermediate layer that can handle processing
processing power. from multiple edge devices.
Visualization: Device-> Local Processing Visualization: Device-> Fog Node-> Cloud

Introduction to Cloud Computing

➢ Cloud computing transforms IT infrastructure into a utility: It lets you ‘plug into’
infrastructure via the internet, and use computing resources without installing and
maintaining them on-premises.
➢ It is the delivery of computing services– including servers, storage, databases,
networking, software, analytics, and intelligence– over the Internet (“the cloud”) to
offer faster innovation, flexible resources, and economies of scale.
➢ Cloud computing is the on-demand delivery of computing resources (such as
storage and infrastructure), as services over the internet with pay-as-you-go
principle.
➢ It eliminates the need for individuals and businesses to self-manage physical
resources themselves, and only pay for what they use

Fig 10: Cloud computing

 Fig 11: Cloud Network

Without Network:

▪ Users cannot access their cloud services.

▪ Applications, data, and users cannot move between clouds.

▪ The infrastructure components that must work together to create a cloud cannot

Cloud Deployment Models / Types of Clouds

• Cloud deployment models define how cloud services are made available to users and where
the infrastructure resides. There are three kinds of Deployment models:

i. Public Cloud
ii. Private Cloud, and
iii. Hybrid Cloud

Fig 12: Types of Clouds

1) Public Cloud
➢ Public clouds are run by third-party cloud service providers.
 ➢ They offer compute, storage, and network resources over the internet, enabling
companies to access shared on-demand resources based on their unique requirements
and business goals

Fig 13: Public Clouds

Advantages of the Public Cloud Model

➢ Minimal Investment: Because it is a pay-per-use service, there is no substantial upfront fee,

making it excellent for enterprises that require immediate access to resources.
➢ No setup cost: The entire infrastructure is fully subsidized by the cloud service providers,
thus there is no need to set up any hardware.
➢ Infrastructure Management is not required: Using the public cloud does not necessitate
infrastructure management.
➢ No maintenance: The maintenance work is done by the service provider (not users).
➢ Dynamic Scalability: To fulfill your company’s needs, on-demand resources are
accessible.
Disadvantages of the Public Cloud Model
➢ Less secure: Public cloud is less secure as resources are public so there is no guarantee of
high-level security.
➢ Low customization: It is accessed by many public so it can’t be customized according to
personal requirements
2) Private cloud
➢ Private clouds are built, managed, and owned by a single organization and privately
hosted in their own data centers, commonly known as “on-premises” or “on-prem.”
➢ They provide greater control, security, and management of data while still enabling
internal users to benefit from a shared pool of compute, storage, and network resources
 Fig 14: Private Clouds
Advantages of the Private Cloud Model
➢ Better Control: You are the sole owner of the property. You gain complete command
over service integration, IT operations, policies, and user behavior.
➢ Data Security and Privacy: It’s suitable for storing corporate information to which
only authorized staff have access. By segmenting resources within the same
infrastructure, improved access and security can be achieved.
➢ Supports Legacy Systems: This approach is designed to work with legacy systems
that are unable to access the public cloud.
➢ Customization: Unlike a public cloud deployment, a private cloud allows a
company to tailor its solution to meet its specific needs.

Disadvantages of the Private Cloud Model

➢ Less scalable: Private clouds are scaled within a certain range as there is less
number of clients.
➢ Costly: Private clouds are more costly as they provide personalized facilities
3) Hybrid Cloud
➢ Hybrid clouds combine public and private cloud models, allowing companies to
leverage public cloud services and maintain the security and compliance
capabilities commonly found in private cloud architectures
 Fig 15: Hybrid Clouds

Advantages of the Hybrid Cloud Model

➢ Flexibility and control: Businesses with more flexibility can design personalized
solutions that meet their particular needs.
➢ Cost: Because public clouds provide scalability, you’ll only be responsible for paying
for the extra capacity if you require it.
➢ Security: Because data is properly separated, the chances of data theft by attackers are
considerably reduced.

Disadvantages of the Hybrid Cloud Model

➢ Difficult to manage: Hybrid clouds are difficult to manage as it is a combination of both

public and private cloud. So, it is complex.
➢ Slow data transmission: Data transmission in the hybrid cloud takes place through the
public cloud so latency occurs.
Comparison

Cloud Computing Architecture

➢ It is possible to organize all the concrete realizations of cloud computing into a layered
view covering the entire stack (see Figure 16), from hardware appliances to software
systems. Cloud resources are harnessed to offer “computing horsepower” required for
providing services. Often, this layer is implemented using a data centre in which
hundreds and thousands of nodes are stacked together. Cloud infrastructure can be
heterogeneous in nature because a variety of resources, such as clusters and even
networked PCs, can be used to build it. Moreover, database systems and other storage
services can also be part of the infrastructure.
➢ The physical infrastructure is managed by the core middleware, the objectives of which
are to provide an appropriate runtime environment for applications and to best utilize
resources. At the bottom of the stack, virtualization technologies are used to guarantee
runtime environment customization, application isolation, sandboxing, and quality of
service. Hardware virtualization is most commonly used at this level. Hypervisors
manage the pool of resources and expose the distributed infrastructure as a collection
of virtual machines. By using virtual machine technology, it is possible to finely
partition the hardware resources such as CPU and memory and to virtualize specific
 devices, thus meeting the requirements of users and applications. This solution is
generally paired with storage and network virtualization strategies, which allow the
infrastructure to be completely virtualized and controlled.

Fig 16: Clouds Computing Architecture

➢ According to the specific service offered to end users, other virtualization techniques can
be used; for example, programming-level virtualization helps in creating a portable
runtime environment where applications can be run and controlled. This scenario
generally implies that applications hosted in the cloud be developed with a specific
technology or a program ming language, such as Java, .NET, or Python. In this case, the
user does not have to build its system from bare metal.
➢ Infrastructure management is the key function of core middleware, which supports
capabilities such as negotiation of the quality of service, admission control, execution
management and monitoring, accounting, and billing.
➢ The combination of cloud hosting platforms and resources is generally classified as a
Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS) solution. We can organize the different examples of
IaaS into two categories: Some of them provide both the management layer and the
physical infrastructure; others provide only the management layer (IaaS (M)). In this
second case, the management layer is often integrated with other IaaS solutions that
 provide physical infrastructure and adds value to them. IaaS solutions are suitable for
designing the system infrastructure but provide limited services to build applications.
Such service is provided by cloud programming environments and tools, which form a
new layer for offering users a development platform for applications.
➢ The range of tools include Web-based interfaces, command-line tools, and frameworks
for concurrent and dis tributed programming. In this scenario, users develop their
applications specifically for the cloud by using the API exposed at the user-level
middleware. For this reason, this approach is also known as Platform-as-a-Service (PaaS)
because the service offered to the user is a development platform rather than an
infrastructure. PaaS solutions generally include the infrastructure as well, which is
bundled as part of the service provided to users. In the case of Pure PaaS, only the user-
level middleware is offered, and it has to be complemented with a virtual or physical
infrastructure.
➢ The top layer of the reference model depicted in Figure 16 contains services delivered at
the application level. These are mostly referred to as Software-as-a-Service (SaaS). In
most cases these are Web-based applications that rely on the cloud to provide service to
end users. The horsepower of the cloud provided by IaaS and PaaS solutions allows
independent software vendors to deliver their application services over the Internet. Other
applications belonging to this layer are those that strongly leverage the Internet for their
core functionalities that rely on the cloud to sustain a larger number of users; this is the
case of gaming portals and, in general, social networking websites. As a vision, any
service offered in the cloud computing style should be able to adaptively change and
expose an autonomic behaviour, in particular for its availability and performance. As a
reference model, it is then expected to have an adaptive management layer in charge of
elastically scaling on demand. SaaS implementations should feature such behaviour
automatically, whereas PaaS and IaaS generally provide this functionality as a part of the
API exposed to users.
➢ The reference model described in Figure 16 also introduces the concept of everything as
a Service (XaaS). This is one of the most important elements of cloud computing: Cloud
services from different providers can be combined to provide a completely integrated
solution covering all the computing stack of a system. IaaS providers can offer the bare
metal in terms of virtual machines where PaaS solutions are deployed. When there is no
need for a PaaS layer, it is possible to directly customize the virtual infrastructure with
 the software stack needed to run applications. This is the case of virtual Web farms: a
distributed system composed of Web servers, database.

Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of the three major categories used to classify cloud
computing solutions. In the following section, we briefly discuss these characteristics along
with some references to practical implementations.

Characteristics of Cloud

➢ The National Institute of Standards Technology (NIST) lists five essential characteristics
of cloud computing: on-demand self-service, broad network access, resource pooling, rapid
elasticity, and measured service.

[Link]-Demand Self-Service: With cloud computing, you can provision computing services, like
server time and network storage, automatically. You won’t need to interact with the service
provider. Cloud customers can access their cloud accounts through a web self-service portal to
view their cloud services, monitor their usage, and provision and de-provision services.

2. Broad Network Access: Another essential cloud computing characteristic is broad network
access. You can access cloud services over the network and on portable devices like mobile
phones, tablets, laptops, and desktop computers. A public cloud uses the internet; a private
cloud uses a local area network. Latency and bandwidth both play a major role in cloud
computing and broad network access, as they affect the quality of service.

3. Resource Pooling: With resource pooling, multiple customers can share physical resources
using a multi-tenant model. This model assigns and reassigns physical and virtual resources
based on demand. Multi-tenancy allows customers to share the same applications or
infrastructure while maintaining privacy and security. Though customers won't know the exact
location of their resources, they may be able to specify the location at a higher level of
abstraction, such as a country, state, or data center. Memory, processing, and bandwidth are
among the resources that customers can pool.

4. Rapid Elasticity: Cloud services can be elastically provisioned and released, sometimes
automatically, so customers can scale quickly based on demand. The capabilities available for
provisioning are practically unlimited. Customers can engage with these capabilities at any
time in any quantity. Customers can also scale cloud use, capacity, and cost without extra
contracts or fees. With rapid elasticity, you won’t need to buy computer hardware. Instead, can
use the cloud provider's cloud computing resources.

5. Measured Service: In cloud systems, a metering capability optimizes resource usage at a

level of abstraction appropriate to the type of service. For example, you can use a measured
service for storage, processing, bandwidth, and users. Payment is based on actual consumption
by the customer via a pay-for-what-you-use model. Monitoring, controlling, and reporting
resource use creates a transparent experience for both consumers and providers of the service.
Other Cloud Computing Characteristics: While not among the NIST essential characteristics,
cloud computing offers a variety of other characteristics that can benefit customers.

6. Resiliency and Availability: Resilience in cloud computing refers to the ability of a service
to recover quickly from any disruption. Cloud resiliency is measured by how fast its servers,
databases, and networks restart and recover after any damage. To prevent data loss, cloud
services create a copy of the stored data. If one server loses data for any reason, the copy version
from the other server restores.

Availability is a related key concept in cloud computing. The benefit of cloud services is that
you can access them remotely, so there are no geographic restrictions when using cloud
resources.

7. Flexibility: Companies need to scale as their business grows. The cloud provides customers
with more freedom to scale as they please without restarting the server. They can also choose
from several payment options to avoid overspending on resources they won't need.

8. Remote Work: Cloud computing helps users work remotely. Remote workers can safely and
quickly access corporate data via their devices, including laptops and smartphones. Employees
who work remotely can also communicate with each other and perform their jobs effectively
using the cloud.

Cloud Delivery models(Xaas)

There are three main types of cloud computing service models

• Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)

• Platform as a service (PaaS)

• Software as a service (SaaS)

Each model provides different levels of control, flexibility, and management for users

Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

Definition: IaaS provides virtualized computing resources over the internet. Users can rent
infrastructure such as servers, storage, and networking on a pay-as-you-go basis.

Examples

: • Amazon Web Services (AWS) EC2: Offers virtual servers that you can configure with
various operating systems and software.

• Microsoft Azure Virtual Machines: Allows users to deploy and manage virtual machines on
a large scale.

• Google Cloud Platform Compute Engine: Provides scalable virtual machines running in
Google’s data centers.

Note: A company that needs to run its own custom applications but doesn't want to invest in
physical hardware can use IaaS to rent the necessary infrastructure and scale up or down as
needed.
Platform as a Service (PaaS)

Definition: PaaS provides a platform allowing customers to develop, run, and manage
applications without dealing with the underlying infrastructure. It includes services such as
development tools, database management, and middleware.

Examples:

• Heroku: A cloud PaaS that supports several programming languages and allows developers
to build, run, and operate applications entirely in the cloud.

• Google App Engine: Lets developers build and deploy applications on Google’s
infrastructure, automatically managing the scaling and infrastructure.

• Microsoft Azure App Services: Provides a platform for building, deploying, and scaling web
apps and APIs quickly.

Note: A development team that wants to focus on writing code and deploying applications
without worrying about managing servers, storage, or networks can use PaaS to streamline
their workflow

Software as a Service (SaaS)

Definition: SaaS delivers software applications over the internet, on a subscription basis. Users
can access the software via a web browser, without needing to install or maintain it locally.
Examples:

• Google Workspace (formerly G Suite): Provides productivity tools such as Gmail, Docs,
Drive, and Calendar.

• Salesforce: A customer relationship management (CRM) platform that allows businesses to

manage customer data and interactions.

• Microsoft Office 365: Offers cloud-based versions of Office applications like Word, Excel,
and PowerPoint, along with other services like email and OneDrive.

Note: A business that needs productivity software for its employees can subscribe to SaaS
services to ensure they always have the latest features and updates without dealing with
installations and maintenance.
Major Use Cases of Cloud

Cloud computing offers a wide range of services and solutions that can be applied to various
use cases across different industries. Here are some major use cases:

1. Data Storage and Backup: Companies and individuals use cloud storage to save and back up
their data securely. Cloud storage solutions provide scalable and reliable storage options.
Examples: Google Drive, Dropbox, Microsoft OneDrive.

2. Application Hosting: Businesses host their applications on cloud platforms to make them
accessible from anywhere, reduce infrastructure costs, and scale resources as needed.
Examples: Web applications like e-commerce sites hosted on AWS or Azure, SaaS applications
like Salesforce.

3. Disaster Recovery: Cloud services offer disaster recovery solutions to ensure business
continuity in case of hardware failures, natural disasters, or other disruptions. Examples: AWS
Disaster Recovery, Azure Site Recovery.

4. Big Data and Analytics: Organizations use cloud computing to process and analyze large
volumes of data quickly and cost-effectively, leveraging powerful cloud-based analytics tools.
Examples: Google BigQuery, AWS Redshift, Microsoft Azure Synapse Analytics.

5. Machine Learning and AI: Cloud platforms provide powerful tools and infrastructure for
building, training, and deploying machine learning and artificial intelligence models.
Examples: Google AI Platform, AWS SageMaker, Azure Machine Learning.

6. Development and Testing: Developers use cloud environments to build, test, and deploy
applications. Cloud-based development tools offer scalable resources and collaborative
features. Examples: GitHub Codespaces, AWS CodeBuild, Azure DevOps.

7. Content Delivery: Cloud services enable the delivery of content such as videos, images, and
web pages quickly and efficiently to users around the world. Examples: Content Delivery
Networks (CDNs) like Cloudflare, AWS CloudFront, Akamai.

8. Internet of Things (IoT): Cloud computing supports IoT by providing platforms for
managing, analyzing, and storing data from connected devices. Examples: AWS IoT Core,
Azure IoT Hub, Google Cloud IoT.
9. Collaboration Tools: Cloud-based collaboration tools help teams work together, share files,
and communicate in real-time from different locations. Examples: Microsoft Teams, Slack,
Google Workspace.

10. Gaming: Cloud gaming services allow users to play video games over the internet without
needing high-end hardware, as the games run on powerful cloud servers. Examples: Google
Stadia, NVIDIA GeForce Now, Xbox Cloud Gaming

Disadvantages of Cloud Computing

1. Security and Privacy Concerns: Storing sensitive data on third-party servers can pose
security and privacy risks. Data breaches, unauthorized access, and vulnerabilities in the
cloud provider's infrastructure are potential issues.
2. Downtime and Service Reliability: Cloud services may experience outages or downtime
due to various factors, including maintenance, cyber-attacks, or technical failures. This can
disrupt business operations and access to critical applications or data.
3. Cost Management: While cloud computing can reduce infrastructure costs, managing and
predicting cloud expenses can be challenging. Uncontrolled usage or misconfigurations can
lead to unexpectedly high costs
4. Data Transfer and Bandwidth: Transferring large volumes of data to and from the cloud can
be time-consuming and costly, especially if internet bandwidth is limited. Latency can also
affect performance.
5. Vendor Lock-In: Relying heavily on a single cloud provider can create dependency, making
it difficult to switch providers or move back to on-premises solutions without significant
effort and cost.
6. Limited Control and Flexibility: Cloud users have less control over the underlying
infrastructure compared to on-premises systems. This can limit customization and control
over certain aspects of the environment.
7. Compliance and Legal Issues: Different countries have varying regulations regarding data
storage and processing. Ensuring compliance with these regulations can be challenging
when using cloud services that operate globally
8. Performance and Latency: Cloud-based applications may experience latency and
performance issues due to the physical distance between users and data centers or network
congestion.
9. Complexity in Management: Managing cloud environments, including resource allocation,
security, and integration, can be complex and may require specialized skills and tools