​1:- respiratry system

2:- Lymphatic system

3:- digestive system

4:-circulatory systum

5:- Endocrine and exocrine glands

Respiratory SYSTEM – COMPLETE NOTES

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1. Introduction

The respiratory system is responsible for the exchange of gases—mainly oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide
(CO₂)—between the body and the environment.
It ensures oxygen supply for cellular respiration and removal of carbon dioxide, a waste product of
metabolism.

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2. Parts of the Respiratory System

A. Upper Respiratory Tract

1. Nose and Nasal cavity – Filters, warms, and moistens air.

Contains hairs and mucus to trap dust and microorganisms.

Lined by ciliated epithelium.

2. Pharynx – Common passage for air and food.

Divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.

3. Larynx – Voice box; contains vocal cords.

Epiglottis prevents entry of food into trachea during swallowing.

B. Lower Respiratory Tract

1. Trachea (Windpipe) – 10–12 cm long tube; made of C-shaped cartilage rings.

Divides into right and left bronchi.

2. Bronchi and Bronchioles – Branch repeatedly into smaller airways.

Terminal bronchioles end in alveolar ducts.

3. Lungs – Main organs of respiration.

Right lung – 3 lobes; Left lung – 2 lobes.

Covered by pleura (double-layered membrane).

Pleural cavity filled with pleural fluid to reduce friction.

4. Alveoli – Functional units of the lungs.

Thin-walled sacs surrounded by capillaries.

Site of gas exchange (O₂ and CO₂).

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3. Physiology of Respiration

Steps of Respiration

1. Pulmonary ventilation (Breathing) – Movement of air in and out of lungs.

2. External respiration – Exchange of gases between alveoli and blood.

3. Transport of gases – O₂ and CO₂ carried by blood.

4. Internal respiration – Exchange between blood and body tissues.

5. Cellular respiration – Utilization of O₂ by cells to produce energy (ATP).

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4. Mechanism of Breathing

A. Inspiration (Inhalation)

Active process.

Diaphragm contracts and moves downward.

External intercostal muscles contract, lifting ribs upward and outward.

Thoracic cavity volume increases → Intrapulmonary pressure decreases → Air enters lungs.

B. Expiration (Exhalation)

Passive process (normally).

Diaphragm relaxes → moves upward.

Intercostal muscles relax → ribs move down.

Volume of thoracic cavity decreases → Pressure increases → Air moves out.

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5. Lung Volumes and Capacities

Important Terms

1. Tidal Volume (TV) – Volume of air inhaled or exhaled in one normal breath.

Average: 500 mL.

2. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) – Extra air inhaled after normal inspiration.

Average: 3000 mL.

3. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) – Extra air exhaled after normal expiration.

Average: 1000 mL.

4. Residual Volume (RV) – Air remaining in lungs after forced expiration.

Average: 1200 mL.

Lung Capacities (Formulas)

Inspiratory Capacity (IC) = TV + IRV

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) = ERV + RV

Vital Capacity (VC) = TV + IRV + ERV

Total Lung Capacity (TLC) = VC + RV

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6. Gas Exchange

External Respiration

Occurs in alveoli.

O₂ moves from alveoli → blood (because alveolar O₂ pressure is higher).

CO₂ moves from blood → alveoli (because blood CO₂ pressure is higher).

Internal Respiration

Occurs in tissues.

O₂ moves from blood → tissues.

CO₂ moves from tissues → blood.

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7. Transport of Gases

Oxygen Transport

98% of O₂ is carried by hemoglobin (as oxyhemoglobin, HbO₂).

2% is dissolved in plasma.

Reaction:
Hb + O₂ ⇌ HbO₂

Carbon Dioxide Transport

70% as bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) in plasma.

23% as carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO₂).

7% dissolved in plasma.

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8. Regulation of Respiration

Controlled by respiratory center in the medulla oblongata and pons.

Chemoreceptors in carotid and aortic bodies detect CO₂ and H⁺ levels.

Increased CO₂ or H⁺ stimulates respiration.

Medullary respiratory center has:

Inspiratory center – controls inspiration.

Expiratory center – controls forced expiration.

Pneumotaxic center (pons) regulates rate and pattern.

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9. Respiratory Quotient (RQ)

Formula:
RQ = (Volume of CO₂ produced) / (Volume of O₂ consumed)

For carbohydrate metabolism → RQ = 1.0

For fat metabolism → RQ = 0.7

For protein metabolism → RQ = 0.8

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10. Common Respiratory Diseases

1. Asthma – Bronchial muscle spasm causing difficulty in breathing.

2. Bronchitis – Inflammation of bronchi.

3. Pneumonia – Infection of alveoli by bacteria/virus.

4. Emphysema – Destruction of alveolar walls → reduced surface area.

5. Tuberculosis (TB) – Bacterial infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

6. COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease) – Includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema.

7. Lung Cancer – Malignant growth in lung tissues.

8. Pleural Effusion – Accumulation of fluid in pleural cavity.

9. Pneumothorax – Air in pleural cavity causing lung collapse.

10. Dyspnea – Difficulty in breathing.

11. Apnea – Temporary cessation of breathing.

12. Hypoxia – Low oxygen supply to tissues.

13. Hypercapnia – High CO₂ in blood.

14. Asphyxia – Suffocation due to oxygen deprivation.

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11. Respiratory System Formulas (Summary)

1. IC = TV + IRV

2. FRC = ERV + RV

3. VC = TV + IRV + ERV

4. TLC = VC + RV

5. Minute Respiratory Volume (MRV) = TV × Respiratory Rate

Example: 500 mL × 12 breaths/min = 6000 mL/min (6 L/min)

6. Alveolar Ventilation Rate (AVR) = (TV − Dead Space) × Respiratory Rate

7. RQ = CO₂ produced / O₂ consumed

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12. One-Liners for Quick Revision

1. Functional unit of lung – Alveolus

2. Voice is produced by – Larynx

3. Respiratory center – Medulla oblongata

4. Inspiration is an – Active process

5. Expiration is – Passive process

6. Average respiratory rate – 12–18 breaths/min

7. Main muscle of respiration – Diaphragm

8. Number of lobes in right lung – 3

9. Number of lobes in left lung – 2

10. Gas exchange occurs by – Diffusion

11. Oxygen carried mainly by – Hemoglobin

12. Carbon dioxide carried mainly as – Bicarbonate ion

13. Normal tidal volume – 500 mL

14. Total lung capacity – 6000 mL

15. Residual volume – 1200 mL

16. Respiratory quotient for carbohydrate – 1.0

17. Hypoxia means – Deficiency of oxygen in tissues

18. Pneumothorax – Air in pleural cavity

19. Dyspnea – Difficult breathing

20. Apnea – No breathing

21. COPD full form – Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

22. Tuberculosis is caused by – Mycobacterium tuberculosis

23. Pleura is – Double membrane around lungs

24. Exchange of gases between

alveoli and blood – External respiration

25. Exchange between blood and tissues – Internal respiration

26. Amount of air inspired or expired in normal breath – Tidal volume

27. Sound of respiration controlled by – Vocal cords

28. Carbonic anhydrase enzyme – Converts CO₂ into carbonic acid

29. Respiratory pigment – Hemoglobin

30. Cilia of respiratory tract – Filter dust and microbes

2:-LYMPHATIC SYSTEM – COMPLETE NOTES

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1. Introduction

The lymphatic system is a secondary circulatory system that helps maintain fluid balance, absorbs fats, and
plays a major role in immunity.
It collects excess tissue fluid (lymph) from body tissues and returns it to the bloodstream.

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2. Functions of the Lymphatic System

1. Drains excess tissue fluid back into the bloodstream.

2. Transports fats and fat-soluble vitamins from intestines (via lacteals).

3. Produces and transports lymphocytes (WBCs) for defense.

4. Filters lymph through lymph nodes to remove bacteria and debris.

5. Helps in immune response (antibody formation, phagocytosis).

6. Maintains osmotic balance between blood and tissues.

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3. Components of the Lymphatic System

1. Lymph

Clear, pale yellow fluid similar to plasma but with less protein.

Contains lymphocytes, proteins, and fats.

Formed by filtration of plasma through capillary walls.

2. Lymphatic Capillaries

Blind-ended microscopic vessels present in most tissues.

Collect interstitial fluid and transport it as lymph.

3. Lymphatic Vessels

Thin-walled vessels with valves to prevent backflow.

Unite to form larger lymphatic trunks.

Empty into two main ducts:

Thoracic duct

Right lymphatic duct

4. Lymph Nodes

Small bean-shaped structures located along lymphatic vessels.

Contain lymphocytes and macrophages.

Function: Filter lymph, trap pathogens, produce antibodies.

5. Lymphoid Organs

Primary Lymphoid Organs

Bone marrow – produces lymphocytes (B and T precursors).

Thymus gland – site for T-lymphocyte maturation.

Secondary Lymphoid Organs

Spleen – filters blood, destroys old RBCs, produces lymphocytes.

Tonsils – protect the pharynx from infection.

Peyer’s patches – lymphoid tissue in the small intestine.

Appendix – has lymphoid tissue aiding local immunity.

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4. Major Lymphatic Ducts

1. Thoracic Duct (Left Lymphatic Duct)

Largest lymphatic vessel.

Drains lymph from entire body except right upper quadrant.

Empties into the left subclavian vein.

2. Right Lymphatic Duct

Drains lymph from right side of head, neck, thorax, and right upper limb.

Opens into right subclavian vein.

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5. Formation and Flow of Lymph

Steps:
1. Blood plasma leaks from capillaries into tissue spaces → becomes interstitial fluid.

2. Most fluid returns to capillaries, but some enters lymph capillaries, becoming lymph.

3. Lymph flows through lymphatic vessels → passes through lymph nodes → filtered.

4. Finally, lymph enters thoracic or right lymphatic duct and returns to venous circulation.

Mechanism of Flow

No pump (like heart) — flow depends on:

Skeletal muscle contractions

Valves preventing backflow

Respiratory movements

Smooth muscle contraction in vessel walls

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6. Composition of Lymph

Water – 94%

Solids – 6% (proteins, lipids, glucose, urea, lymphocytes)

Fewer plasma proteins than blood plasma

Rich in lymphocytes and fatty acids

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7. Important Lymphoid Organs – In Detail

A. Thymus

Located behind sternum; active in childhood.

Site of T-cell maturation.

Secretes hormones thymosin and thymopoietin.

Atrophies after puberty.

B. Spleen

Largest lymphoid organ; located in left upper abdomen.

Functions:

Filters blood.

Destroys old or damaged RBCs.

Stores blood and platelets.

Produces lymphocytes and antibodies.

Acts as blood reservoir.

C. Tonsils

Masses of lymphoid tissue in the pharynx.

Three types:

Palatine, Pharyngeal (adenoids), Lingual tonsils.

Function: Trap and destroy pathogens entering via mouth and nose.

D. Bone Marrow

Site of formation of all blood cells including lymphocytes.

B lymphocytes mature here.

E. Peyer’s Patches

Aggregated lymphoid nodules in the ileum.

Protect intestinal mucosa from infection.

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8. Lymphatic System and Immunity

Types of Immunity

1. Innate Immunity (Natural/Non-specific)

Present at birth.

Includes barriers (skin, mucosa), phagocytes, fever, inflammation.

2. Acquired Immunity (Specific)

Developed after exposure or vaccination.

Types:

Active immunity: Body produces antibodies.

Natural – after infection.

Artificial – after vaccination.

Passive immunity: Ready-made antibodies given.

Natural – from mother to child (placenta/milk).

Artificial – injection of antibodies or serum.

Lymphocytes

B-cells: Produce antibodies (humoral immunity).

T-cells: Destroy infected cells (cell-mediated immunity).

NK cells (Natural Killer): Destroy cancerous or virus-infected cells.

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9. Disorders of the Lymphatic System

1. Lymphedema – Swelling due to lymph accumulation (blockage of vessels).

2. Elephantiasis – Chronic lymphatic obstruction caused by filarial worms (Wuchereria bancrofti).

3. Lymphadenitis – Inflammation of lymph nodes.

4. Lymphoma – Cancer of lymphatic tissue (e.g., Hodgkin’s lymphoma).

5. Splenomegaly – Enlargement of spleen.

6. Tonsillitis – Infection of tonsils.

7. Thymic hypoplasia – Underdeveloped thymus (seen in DiGeorge syndrome).

8. Autoimmune diseases – Overactive immune response against self-cells.

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10. Important Formulas / Facts

While the lymphatic system has no numeric formulas like the respiratory one, remember these key
conceptual relationships:

Lymph = Interstitial Fluid + Lymphocytes + Lipids

Flow direction: Tissue spaces → Lymph capillaries → Lymph vessels → Lymph nodes → Lymph trunks →
Ducts → Subclavian veins

Main lymph return pathway: Thoracic duct → Left subclavian vein

Immunity Formula (Conceptual):

Total Immunity = Innate Immunity + Acquired Immunity

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11. One-Liners for Quick Revision

1. Lymphatic system is a secondary circulatory system.

2. Fluid inside lymph vessels – Lymph.

3. Lymph resembles blood plasma but has less protein.

4. Lymphatic vessels have valves to prevent backflow.

5. Smallest lymphatic vessels – Lymph capillaries.

6. Largest lymphatic vessel – Thoracic duct.

7. Thoracic duct drains into left subclavian vein.

8. Right lymphatic duct drains into right subclavian vein.

9. Functional unit of lymphatic system – Lymph node.

10. Lymph nodes produce lymphocytes and antibodies.

11. Lymph node inflammation – Lymphadenitis.

12. Spleen filters blood, not lymph.

13. Thymus gland is essential for T-cell maturation.

14. B-lymphocytes mature in bone marrow.

15. Tonsils provide defense against inhaled or ingested pathogens.

16. Peyer’s patches found in ileum.

17. Lymphatic obstruction causes edema (swelling).

18. Elephantiasis caused by filarial worms.

19. Immunity produced by antibodies – Humoral immunity.

20. Immunity produced by T-cells – Cell-mediated immunity.

21. Passive natural immunity – From mother to child.

22. Artificial active immunity – By vaccination.

23. Lymphoid organs include spleen, thymus, tonsils, bone marrow, lymph nodes.

24. Largest lymphoid organ – Spleen.

25. Lymph carries fats, proteins, and lymphocytes.

26. Flow of lymph depends on muscle contractions and valves.

27. Thymus secretes thymosin hormone.

28. Lymphatic vessels absent in brain and bone marrow.

29. Lymphocytes are of two main types – B and T cells.

30. Primary lymphoid organs – Thymus and Bone marrow.

31. Secondary lymphoid organs – Spleen, Tonsils, Lymph nodes, Peyer’s patches.

32. Lymph color – P

ale yellow or colorless.

33. Spleen acts as blood reservoir.

34. Main function of lymph – Return tissue fluid to blood.

35. Tonsillitis – Infection of tonsils.

36. Immunity means – Body’s ability to resist infection.

37. Lymphoid tissue produces white blood cells.

38. Lymphatic system connects with venous system.

39. Elephantiasis common in tropical regions.

40. Lymphocytes are responsible for specific immunity.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM – COMPLETE NOTES

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1. Introduction

The digestive system (also called alimentary system) is responsible for the ingestion, digestion, absorption,
and elimination of food.
Its main function is to convert complex food into simple absorbable forms to supply energy and nutrients to
the body.

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2. Parts of the Digestive System

The digestive system consists of:

A. Alimentary Canal

A continuous muscular tube extending from mouth to anus, about 9 meters long.
Parts include:

1. Mouth

2. Pharynx

3. Esophagus
4. Stomach

5. Small Intestine

6. Large Intestine

7. Rectum and Anus

B. Accessory Digestive Organs

1. Salivary glands

2. Liver

3. Gallbladder

4. Pancreas

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3. Process of Digestion

Main Steps:

1. Ingestion – Taking food into mouth.

2. Mastication – Chewing of food by teeth.

3. Deglutition – Swallowing of food.

4. Digestion – Breaking food into simpler substances.

5. Absorption – Nutrients absorbed into blood and lymph.

6. Assimilation – Utilization of absorbed nutrients by cells.

7. Defecation – Elimination of undigested food (feces).

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4. Structure and Functions of Digestive Organs

A. Mouth

Entry of food.

Contains teeth (mastication), tongue (taste and mixing), and salivary glands.

Saliva moistens food and starts digestion of starch.

Enzyme: Salivary amylase (ptyalin) – converts starch → maltose.

Average pH of saliva: 6.8 (slightly acidic).

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B. Pharynx

Common passage for food and air.

Epiglottis prevents food entering the trachea.

Food passes to esophagus during swallowing.

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C. Esophagus

25 cm muscular tube connecting pharynx to stomach.

Moves food by peristaltic movement.

No digestion occurs here.

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D. Stomach

J-shaped organ on the left upper abdomen.

Lined with gastric glands secreting gastric juice (2–3 L/day).

Components and Functions:

Hydrochloric acid (HCl) – kills bacteria, provides acidic pH (1.5–2.0).

Pepsin – digests proteins → peptones.

Rennin (in infants) – coagulates milk.

Gastric lipase – acts on fats.

Mucus – protects stomach lining.

Food becomes semi-liquid called chyme.

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E. Small Intestine

Longest part (~6 meters); main site for digestion and absorption.

Divided into:
1. Duodenum

2. Jejunum

3. Ileum

Duodenum receives secretions from:

Liver (bile)

Pancreas (pancreatic juice)

Intestinal glands

Enzymes and their functions:

Pancreatic amylase – starch → maltose

Trypsin and chymotrypsin – proteins → peptides

Lipase – fats → fatty acids + glycerol

Maltase, Sucrase, Lactase – disaccharides → monosaccharides

Peptidase – peptides → amino acids

Bile (from liver) – emulsifies fats (no enzyme).

pH in small intestine: about 8 (alkaline).

Absorption of Nutrients:

Glucose, amino acids → blood capillaries.

Fats → lymphatic capillaries (lacteals).

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F. Large Intestine

About 1.5 meters long.

Consists of caecum, colon, rectum.

No digestion occurs here.

Functions:

Absorbs water and electrolytes.

Forms feces.

Houses intestinal bacteria (produce vitamin K, B₁₂).

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G. Rectum and Anus

Rectum stores feces.

Anus eliminates waste during defecation.

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5. Accessory Digestive Organs

A. Salivary Glands

1. Parotid gland – near ear.

2. Submandibular gland – under jaw.

3. Sublingual gland – below tongue.

Secrete saliva containing:

Water, mucus, amylase, lysozyme, salts.

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B. Liver

Largest gland in the body (about 1.5 kg).

Located in the right upper abdomen.

Functions:

Secretes bile (stored in gallbladder).

Bile salts emulsify fats.

Stores glycogen, vitamins (A, D, K, B12).

Detoxifies harmful substances.

Synthesizes plasma proteins (albumin, fibrinogen).

Converts ammonia → urea.

Regulates blood glucose.

Bile color: yellowish-green (contains bilirubin, bile salts, cholesterol).

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C. Gallbladder

Pear-shaped sac beneath the liver.

Stores and concentrates bile.

Releases bile into duodenum via common bile duct.

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D. Pancreas

Mixed gland (both endocrine and exocrine).

Secretes pancreatic juice into duodenum.

Amylase – starch digestion.

Trypsin – protein digestion.

Lipase – fat digestion.

Also produces hormones (insulin, glucagon) for glucose regulation.

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6. Digestive Enzymes Summary (for MCQs)

Food Type Enzyme Source End Product

Carbohydrates Amylase, Maltase, Sucrase, Lactase Saliva, Pancreas, Intestine Glucose

Proteins Pepsin, Trypsin, Peptidase Stomach, Pancreas, Intestine Amino acids
Fats Lipase Pancreas, Intestine Fatty acids + Glycerol

(Note: summarized in text form for your PDF)

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7. Important Formulas and Values

1. pH values in digestive tract:

Mouth: ~6.8
Stomach: 1.5–2.0

Small intestine: 8.0

2. Daily secretions:

Saliva – 1 to 1.5 L/day

Gastric juice – 2 to 3 L/day

Intestinal juice – 1 to 2 L/day

Bile – 0.5 to 1 L/day

3. Digestive equation for carbohydrates:

Starch → Maltose → Glucose

4. Protein digestion sequence:

Protein → Peptones → Peptides → Amino acids

5. Fat digestion sequence:

Fats → Emulsified fats → Fatty acids + Glycerol

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8. Hormones of Digestion

1. Gastrin – Stimulates gastric juice secretion.

2. Secretin – Stimulates pancreatic juice and bile.

3. Cholecystokinin (CCK) – Contracts gallbladder, releases bile.

4. Enterokinase – Activates trypsinogen → trypsin.

5. Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) – Slows gastric emptying.

6. Somatostatin – Inhibits secretion of other digestive hormones.

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9. Common Disorders of Digestive System

1. Indigestion (Dyspepsia) – Incomplete digestion due to overeating.

2. Vomiting (Emesis) – Ejection of stomach contents via mouth.

3. Diarrhea – Frequent watery stools due to infection or irritation.

4. Constipation – Difficulty in passing stools due to lack of fiber.

5. Ulcers – Erosion of stomach/duodenal mucosa due to acid or Helicobacter pylori.

6. Jaundice – Yellowing of skin due to increased bilirubin.

7. Gallstones (Cholelithiasis) – Crystallized cholesterol in gallbladder.

8. Hepatitis – Inflammation of liver (types A, B, C, D, E).

9. Pancreatitis – Inflammation of pancreas.

10. Appendicitis – Inflammation of appendix.

11. Malabsorption syndrome – Poor absorption of nutrients.

12. Flatulence – Excess gas formation in intestine.

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10. One-Liners for Quick Revision

1. Longest part of digestive tract – Small intestine

2. Shortest part – Pharynx

3. Longest gland – Liver

4. Smallest gland – Pituitary, but in digestive system: Intestinal gland

5. Enzyme in saliva – Ptyalin (salivary amylase)

6. Food in stomach is called – Chyme

7. pH of stomach – 1.5 to 2.0

8. Enzyme converting pepsinogen → pepsin – HCl

9. Rennin acts only in – Infants

10. Main site of absorption – Small intestine

11. Largest gland in body – Liver

12. Bile is secreted by – Liver, stored in Gallbladder

13. Bile contains – Bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol

14. Bile function – Emulsifies fats

15. Fats absorbed into – Lacteals (lymph vessels)

16. Proteins digested by – Pepsin, Trypsin, Peptidase

17. Carbohydrates digested by – Amylase, Maltase, Sucrase

18. Pancreas is a – Mixed gland

19. End product of carbohydrate digestion – Glucose

20. End product of protein digestion – Amino acids

21. End product of fat digestion – Fatty acids and Glycerol

22. Hormone stimulating bile – Cholecystokinin (CCK)

23. Hormone stimulating pancreatic juice – Secretin

24. Hormone stimulating gastric juice – Gastrin

25. Enzyme activating trypsin – Enterokinase

26. pH of small intestine – 8.0 (alkaline)

27. Food moves through tract by – Peristalsis

28. Main energy source – Carbohydrates

29. Vitamin formed by intestinal bacteria – Vitami

n K, B₁₂

30. Disease caused by H. pylori – Peptic ulcer

31. Yellow discoloration due to bilirubin – Jaundice

32. Inflammation of liver – Hepatitis

33. Formation of stones in gallbladder – Cholelithiasis

34. Inflammation of appendix – Appendicitis

35. Enzyme digesting fats – Lipase

36. Absorption of water occurs in – Large intestine

37. Number of salivary glands – 3 pairs

38. Amount of saliva per day – 1–1.5 liters

39. Bile contains no enzyme – True

40. Function of liver – Metabolism and detoxification

4:-CIRCULATORY SYSTEM – COMPLETE NOTES

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1. Introduction

The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system, is responsible for the transport of blood,
nutrients, gases (O₂, CO₂), hormones, and waste products throughout the body.
It consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels.

Its main functions are:

To carry oxygen and nutrients to tissues.

To remove waste products like carbon dioxide and urea.

To maintain body temperature and pH balance.

To transport hormones and immune cells.

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2. Components of Circulatory System

1. Heart – Muscular organ that pumps blood.

2. Blood vessels – Tubes through which blood flows (arteries, veins, capillaries).

3. Blood – The fluid connective tissue that carries gases, nutrients, and waste.

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3. Structure of the Heart

The heart is a hollow, muscular organ located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs, slightly to the left.

Size: About the size of a fist (~250–300 g).

Enclosed by: A double membrane called pericardium, with pericardial fluid to reduce friction.

Chambers of the Heart

The heart has four chambers:

1. Right atrium – Receives deoxygenated blood from body (via superior and inferior vena cava).

2. Right ventricle – Pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs via pulmonary artery.

3. Left atrium – Receives oxygenated blood from lungs via pulmonary veins.

4. Left ventricle – Pumps oxygenated blood to body via aorta.

Valves of the Heart

Valves ensure unidirectional flow of blood:

Tricuspid valve – Between right atrium and right ventricle.

Pulmonary valve – Between right ventricle and pulmonary artery.

Bicuspid (mitral) valve – Between left atrium and left ventricle.

Aortic valve – Between left ventricle and aorta.

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4. Circulation of Blood

Types of Circulation

1. Pulmonary Circulation:
From right ventricle → lungs → left atrium.

Purpose: Exchange of CO₂ and O₂ in lungs.

2. Systemic Circulation:

From left ventricle → body tissues → right atrium.

Purpose: Supply oxygen and nutrients to the body.

3. Coronary Circulation:

Blood supply to the heart muscle (myocardium) itself via coronary arteries.

4. Portal Circulation:

Blood from digestive organs passes through liver (via hepatic portal vein) before entering systemic
circulation.

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5. Blood Vessels

Arteries

Carry blood away from the heart.

Carry oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery).

Have thick, elastic, muscular walls.

Blood flows under high pressure.

Veins

Carry blood toward the heart.

Carry deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary vein).

Have thin, less elastic walls and valves to prevent backflow.

Blood flows under low pressure.

Capillaries

Microscopic thin-walled vessels between arteries and veins.

Permit exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes between blood and tissues.

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6. Blood and Its Composition

Blood is a connective tissue composed of plasma (fluid part) and formed elements (cells).

A. Plasma

Yellowish fluid – 55% of blood volume.

Contains water, proteins (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen), glucose, salts, hormones, enzymes.

Function: Transport nutrients, hormones, and waste.

B. Formed Elements

1. Red Blood Cells (RBCs / Erythrocytes)

Biconcave, no nucleus.

Contain hemoglobin – carries oxygen.

Lifespan: ~120 days.

Produced in red bone marrow.

Destroyed in spleen (graveyard of RBCs).

2. White Blood Cells (WBCs / Leukocytes)

Have nucleus, no hemoglobin.

Defend the body against infection.

Types:

Granulocytes – neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils.

Agranulocytes – lymphocytes, monocytes.

3. Platelets (Thrombocytes)

Fragments of megakaryocytes.

Function: Blood clotting (coagulation).

Lifespan: ~7–10 days.

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7. Heartbeat and Cardiac Cycle

Heartbeat

One complete contraction and relaxation of heart muscles.

Normal rate: 72 beats per minute in adults.

Controlled by sinoatrial (SA) node (pacemaker of heart).

Sequence:

1. Atrial systole – Atria contract → blood flows into ventricles.

2. Ventricular systole – Ventricles contract → blood pumped to lungs and body.

3. Diastole – Relaxation of all chambers → heart refills with blood.

Duration of one cardiac cycle: about 0.8 seconds.

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8. Conducting System of Heart

1. SA Node (Sinoatrial Node):

In right atrium wall.

Initiates heartbeat (natural pacemaker).

2. AV Node (Atrioventricular Node):

Relays impulses from atria to ventricles.

3. Bundle of His:

Conducts impulses through interventricular septum.

4. Purkinje Fibers:

Distribute impulse to ventricular muscle → contraction.

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9. Important Formulas and Values

1. Heart rate (HR): 72 beats/min (normal).

2. Stroke volume (SV): 70 mL (blood pumped by one ventricle per beat).

3. Cardiac output (CO):

Formula: CO = HR × SV

Example: 72 × 70 = 5040 mL/min (≈5 L/min)

4. Blood pressure (BP):

Systolic / Diastolic = 120 / 80 mmHg

Measured by sphygmomanometer.

Hypertension: >140/90 mmHg

Hypotension: <90/60 mmHg

5. Pulse rate = Heart rate (~72/min).

6. Total blood volume: 5–6 L in adults.

7. pH of blood: 7.4

8. Normal hematocrit (RBC volume %): ~45%.

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10. Blood Groups

Discovered by Karl Landsteiner.

ABO System

A, B, AB, O types based on antigens on RBCs.

O = universal donor.

AB = universal recipient.

Rh Factor

Rh-positive (Rh⁺) – Antigen present.

Rh-negative (Rh⁻) – Antigen absent.

Rh incompatibility causes Erythroblastosis fetalis in newborns.

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11. Functions of Blood

1. Transport: O₂, CO₂, nutrients, hormones, wastes.

2. Regulation: Body temperature, pH, water balance.

3. Protection: Against infection (WBCs, antibodies).

4. Clotting: Prevents blood loss.

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12. Disorders of Circulatory System

1. Anemia – Low RBC count or hemoglobin.

2. Leukemia – Cancer of WBCs.

3. Thrombosis – Blood clot inside vessel.

4. Embolism – Dislodged clot blocking vessel.

5. Hemophilia – Inherited defect in clotting.

6. Hypertension – High blood pressure.

7. Hypotension – Low blood pressure.

8. Atherosclerosis – Deposition of fat in arteries.

9. Myocardial infarction (Heart attack) – Blocked coronary artery.

10. Angina pectoris – Chest pain due to low oxygen to heart.

11. Varicose veins – Swollen veins due to weak valves.

12. Cardiac arrest – Sudden stoppage of heart activity.

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13. One-Liners for Quick Revision

1. Circulatory system is also called cardiovascular system.

2. Human heart has four chambers.

3. Right side carries deoxygenated blood.

4. Left side carries oxygenated blood.

5. Wall between two sides – Septum.

6. Heart valve between right atrium and ventricle – Tricuspid valve.

7. Heart valve between left atrium and ventricle – Bicuspid (mitral) valve.

8. Heart sound “lub-dub” due to closure of valves.

9. Normal heartbeat – 72/min.

10. Heart’s natural pacemaker – SA node.

11. Blood pressure measured by – Sphygmomanometer.

12. Normal BP – 120/80 mmHg.

13. Systolic pressure – during contraction.

14. Diastolic pressure – during relaxation.

15. Cardiac output = HR × SV.

16. Total blood volume – 5–6 L.

17. pH of blood – 7.4 (slightly alkaline).

18. RBC lifespan – 120 days.

19. WBC lifespan – Few days to months.

20. Platelets help in – Clotting of blood.

21. Plasma forms – 55% of blood.

22. Spleen is called – Graveyard of RBCs.

23. Universal donor – O group.

24. Universal recipient – AB group.

25. Rh factor discovered by – Landsteiner and Wiener.

26. Largest artery – Aorta.

27. Largest vein – Inferior vena cava.

28. Smallest blood vessels – Capillaries.

29. Arteries carry – Oxygenated blood (except pulmonary artery).

30. Veins carry – Deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary vein).

31. Pulmonary circulation starts fro
m – Right ventricle.

32. Systemic circulation starts from – Left ventricle.

33. Coronary arteries supply – Heart muscle.

34. Hepatic portal vein carries blood from intestine to liver.

35. Heart enclosed by – Pericardium.

36. Cardiac cycle duration – 0.8 seconds.

37. Cardiac muscle – Involuntary and striated.

38. ECG records – Electrical activity of heart.

39. Hemoglobin gives blood its red color.

40. Platelet deficiency leads to excessive bleeding (thrombocytopenia).

5:- Endocrine and exocrine glands

ENDOCRINE AND EXOCRINE GLANDS – COMPLETE NOTES

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1. Introduction

The body contains two main types of glands that regulate various body functions through secretions:

1. Exocrine glands – Secrete their products through ducts onto an epithelial surface or into body cavities.
2. Endocrine glands – Are ductless glands that release hormones directly into the blood.

Both types are essential for maintaining internal balance and normal physiology.

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2. Difference Between Endocrine and Exocrine Glands

Endocrine glands: Ductless, secrete hormones directly into bloodstream.

Exocrine glands: Have ducts and secrete enzymes, mucus, sweat, saliva, etc. to an external or internal
surface.

Some glands (like the pancreas, gonads) are mixed, performing both endocrine and exocrine functions.

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3. Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones

A. Pituitary Gland (Master Gland)

Location: At base of brain, below hypothalamus.

Controls other endocrine glands.

Has two lobes: Anterior and Posterior.

Anterior Pituitary Hormones:

1. Growth Hormone (GH) – Growth of bones & muscles.

Deficiency → Dwarfism

Excess → Gigantism or Acromegaly

2. TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) – Stimulates thyroid gland.

3. ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone) – Stimulates adrenal cortex.

4. FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone) – Sperm and ovum production.

5. LH (Luteinizing Hormone) – Ovulation and testosterone secretion.

6. Prolactin – Milk production in females.

Posterior Pituitary Hormones:

1. ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone / Vasopressin) – Promotes water reabsorption by kidneys.

Deficiency → Diabetes Insipidus

2. Oxytocin – Causes uterine contraction during childbirth and milk ejection.

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B. Thyroid Gland

Location: Front of neck, below larynx.

Hormones:

1. Thyroxine (T₄) & Triiodothyronine (T₃) – Control metabolism, growth, and development.

2. Calcitonin – Decreases blood calcium level.

Disorders:
Hypothyroidism → Cretinism (children), Myxedema (adults)

Hyperthyroidism → Graves’ disease

Iodine deficiency → Goitre

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C. Parathyroid Glands

Four small glands behind the thyroid.

Hormone: Parathormone (PTH) – Increases blood calcium level by acting on bones and kidneys.

Deficiency → Tetany (muscle spasm)

Excess → Bone softening

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D. Adrenal (Suprarenal) Glands

Two glands located above each kidney.

Have two parts: Cortex and Medulla.

Adrenal Cortex Hormones:

1. Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoid) – Regulates sodium & water balance.

2. Cortisol (Glucocorticoid) – Regulates metabolism, stress resistance.

3. Androgens – Support sexual development.

Adrenal Medulla Hormones:

1. Adrenaline (Epinephrine)

2. Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine)
→ Increase heart rate, BP, respiration (“Fight or Flight” response).

Disorders:

Addison’s disease – Low adrenal hormones.

Cushing’s syndrome – High cortisol.

Pheochromocytoma – Adrenal tumor.

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E. Pancreas (Mixed Gland)

Located below stomach.

Exocrine part: Secretes digestive enzymes (amylase, lipase, trypsin) into duodenum.

Endocrine part: Islets of Langerhans secrete:

1. Insulin (β-cells) – Lowers blood sugar.

2. Glucagon (α-cells) – Raises blood sugar.

3. Somatostatin (δ-cells) – Regulates both.

Disorders:

Insulin deficiency → Diabetes Mellitus

Symptoms: Polyuria, Polydipsia, Polyphagia (3 P’s).

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F. Gonads (Sex Glands)

1. Testes (male) – Secrete Testosterone

Function: Male sexual characteristics, sperm formation.

2. Ovaries (female) – Secrete Estrogen & Progesterone

Function: Female characteristics, ovulation, pregnancy maintenance.

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G. Pineal Gland

Location: In brain.

Hormone: Melatonin – Regulates sleep-wake cycle (biological clock).

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H. Thymus Gland

Location: Behind sternum (chest).

Hormone: Thymosin – Develops immune T-lymphocytes.

Large in children, shrinks after puberty.

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4. Exocrine Glands and Their Functions

1. Salivary glands – Secrete saliva; start digestion of starch.

2. Sweat glands – Secrete sweat; regulate body temperature.

3. Sebaceous glands – Secrete sebum; lubricate skin & hair.

4. Lacrimal glands – Produce tears.

5. Mammary glands – Produce milk.

6. Gastric glands – Secrete gastric juice (HCl & enzymes).

7. Liver – Secretes bile (fat digestion).

8. Pancreas – Secretes digestive enzymes (exocrine part).

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5. Mixed Glands

Some glands function as both endocrine and exocrine, e.g.:

Pancreas

Testes

Ovaries

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6. Regulation of Hormones

Hormones are regulated by feedback mechanisms:

Negative feedback: Excess hormone → inhibits its own production.

Example: High thyroxine → inhibits TSH secretion.

Positive feedback: Stimulates more secretion (e.g., oxytocin during childbirth).

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7. Important Hormonal Values and Formulas

1. Normal blood glucose: 70–110 mg/dL.

2. Insulin ↓ glucose, Glucagon ↑ glucose.

3. Thyroxine controls Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR).

4. Adrenaline increases heart rate, BP, and alertness.

5. Hormone balance = essential for homeostasis.

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8. Hormonal Disorders (Quick Summary)

1. Diabetes Mellitus – Insulin deficiency.

2. Diabetes Insipidus – ADH deficiency.

3. Cretinism – Hypothyroidism in children.

4. Myxedema – Hypothyroidism in adults.

5. Goitre – Iodine deficiency.

6. Gigantism/Dwarfism – GH imbalance.

7. Acromegaly – Excess GH in adults.

8. Addison’s disease – Low adrenal hormones.

9. Cushing’s syndrome – High cortisol.

10. Graves’ disease – Hyperthyroidism.

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9. One-Liners for Revision

1. Endocrine glands are ductless.

2. Exocrine glands have ducts.

3. Hormones act as chemical messengers.

4. Pituitary is the master gland.

5. GH controls body growth.

6. ADH prevents water loss.

7. Oxytocin helps in childbirth and milk ejection.

8. Thyroid secretes thyroxine.

9. Parathormone increases blood calcium.

10. Calcitonin decreases blood calcium.

11. Adrenaline is emergency hormone.

12. Aldosterone controls water-salt balance.

13. Cortisol manages stress.

14. Pancreas is both endocrine and exocrine.

15. Insulin lowers blood sugar.

16. Glucagon raises blood sugar.

17. Diabetes Mellitus – Insulin deficiency.

18. Testes secrete testosterone.

19. Ovaries secrete estrogen & progesterone.

20. Pineal gland secretes melatonin (sleep hormone).

21. Thymus controls immune function.

22. Addison’s disease – Adrenal insufficiency.

23. Cushing’s syndrome – Excess cortisol.

24. Graves’ disease – Hyperthyroidism.

25. Iodine deficiency → Goitre.

26. Dwarfism – Low GH, Gigantism – High GH.

27. Pituitary gland lies in sella turcica.

28. Largest endocrine gland – Thyroid.

29. Parathyroid glands are four in number.

30. Hormones act in very small quantities.

31. Feedback mechanism mainta

ins hormone balance.

32. Insulin discovered by Banting and Best.

33. Melatonin regulates sleep rhythm.

34. PTH and Calcitonin maintain calcium level.

35. Hormones destroyed in liver & kidney.

36. Thymus large in infants, small in adults.

37. Hypothalamus controls pituitary.

38. Adrenal glands are above kidneys.

39. Epinephrine increases heart rate & BP.

40. Endocrine system works slow but long-lasting compared to nerves.