EVM NOTES - IGCSE
Ch 1: Rocks and minerals & their exploitation
1.1 FORMATION OF ROCKS
Structure of the Earth: crust -- mantle -- outer core -- inner core
Igneous rock: rocks made during a volcanic process
When molten rock from the crust and upper mantle cools, igneous rocks are formed.
(ex): Granite & Basalt
Sedimentary rock: rocks formed from material derived from the weathering of other rocks/
accumulation of dead plants and animals.
(ex): Limestone & Sandstone
Metamorphic rock: rocks formed from existing rocks by a combination of heat and pressure
(ex): Marble & Slate
1.2 EXTRACTION OF ROCKS & MINERALS FROM THE EARTH
Coal and oil provide energy
Metallic ores provide us with the metals and alloys needed to make products (ex):
computers, phones, cars etc..
Searching for minerals:
-The simplest way to find mineral deposits is to look carefully at the surface of the rocks.
-The process is called “prospecting”
-Valuable mineral ores in the rock below the surface can be located from satellite images
(by sending signals to the surface of the Earth)
Methods of extraction:
-Surface mining: open cast, open pit, strip mining, open cut
-Sub-surface mining: deep and shaft mining
Factors affecting the viability of extraction of minerals:
-cost of exploration & extraction
-geology
-climate
-accessibility
-the environment impact
-supply and demand
1.3 IMPACT OF ROCK & MINERAL EXTRACTION
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Ecological impacts:
-loss of habitat for some species of plants and animals
-requires vegetation to be cleared from an area of land
-even if the surface is restored after mining, the vegetation will have less biodiversity than
the original vegetation.
-Pollution:
-mining can result in the form of: noise, water, land, air and visual pollution
Noise pollution: a problem when large-scale surface mining takes place as the overburden is
loosened by explosive charges and then by large machines. The noise can disturb the
behaviour of many animal species and cause health problems for people.
Water pollution: the water that drains through mine waste or comes directly from mine shafts
can cause dramatic changes to the populations of living organisms in streams and rivers.
Drinking water supplies may be polluted by drainage from mines which can be unsafe for
people to drink. (It is caused by chemical reactions between water and exposed
rocks/mining waste.) The water may be acidic with a high concentration of toxic metal ions,
killing many aquatic organisms.
Land pollution: because the land will be polluted by mine waste, only few plants can grow,
even many years after mining has stopped. The waste pile may collapse and cover more
land. Many mining activities release dust particles which will settle on the vegetation near the
mine. Dust reduces the growth of plants as plants need light to perform photosynthesis. The
dust particles might block light from entering the leaves which will result in reduction of the
rate of photosynthesis. The biggest risk is breathing dust particles.
Visual pollution: evidence of mining activity can often be seen as the landscape is damaged.
Large scale surface mining will create the most obvious visual pollution.
(When a company applies for a licence to start working, an environmental impact
assessment is carried out. The application will be approved if the company has a plan to
keep the loss of habitat as small as possible and then to restore the land after mining has
finished.)
Keywords to be used: Biomagnification, Bioaccumulation
Economic impacts:
-provides employment for people (but in modern mining, because of technology only few
people will be directly employed)
-However, if the minerals are refined and processed, this can create more job opportunities.
-provides taxes for the government
-benefit both local and national economies
-generate income for buying goods and services as well as investing infrastructure projects
-improvements to transport services, education, healthcare etc…
1.4 MANAGING THE IMPACT OF ROCK & MINERAL EXTRACTION
-Safe disposal of mining waste: the licence application should include a detailed plan to
show how mine waste will be stored to prevent collapse.
-Land restoration: mine waste can be reshaped to blend in with the surrounding landforms
and then be covered by a layer of soil which may be enriched with fertiliser. Such an area
can be planted with trees.
-Some mine waste dont allow plant growth, so bioremediation can be done.
1.5 SUSTAINABLE USE OF ROCKS AND MINERALS
Ch 2: Energy and the environment
2.1 FOSSIL FUELS
How fossil fuels are made:
Fossil fuels are produced from the decay of plants and animals. These remains formed
organic matter that became covered in layers of sediment. Over millions of years, and buried
deep in the ground by the addition of further layers of sediment, the organic material was
subjected to great pressure and heat.
2.2 ENERGY RESOURCES
The demand for energy is increasing worldwide because of:
-increasing population size
-increasing industrialization and urbanisation
-improvements in standards of living and expectations
Types of energy sources:
Non-renewable- coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear power
Renewable- tidal power, wave power, wind power, solar power, biofuels etc…
USING THE DIFFERENT ENERGY SOURCES
Economic factors-
-supply of energy is expensive
-some countries face an economic barrier that prevents them from using certain energy
resources.
-cost of investing technology
Social factors:
-the development of new energy sources can change the political relationships and trading
patterns between two nations.
Environmental factors:
Pollution: spillage of fuel into the environment, it can cause damage to wildlife.
Changes to the ecosystem: extraction of fuels from underground can destroy habitats
Visual impacts: the nature of the landscape can be changed, impacting the area’s natural
beauty.
2.3 THE DEMAND FOR ENERGY
Industrial demand:
-Manufacturing requires the use of large quantities of energy in all stages of production.
-Iron and steel production has extremely large energy demand, using fuel to melt ore and
additional heat
Domestic demand:
-created by affordability and availability but is also driven by the need to keep up with the
neighbourhood.
Transport demand:
-modes of transport requires large amounts of fossil fuels to operate
Economic factors:
-Domestic demand will be dependent on energy and will be dependent upon the relative
affluence of the people within a country.
2.4 CONSERVATION & MANAGEMENT OF ENERGY RESOURCES
Reduce consumption:
Reduction of window size
Reduce amount of energy used to heat a building
Electrical devices should be turned off when not in use
Household rubbish can be incinerated (burnt) to produce heat.
Educate
2.5 IMPACT OF OIL POLLUTION
Why the world is reliant on oil:
-easy to store and transport
-easy to extract than coal
-can be made into different products
-produces less pollution when burnt
3 main causes of marine oil spills:
-offshore oil extraction
-leakage from oil rigs
-leaks or burst of oil pipelines
-collision or damage while shipping and transporting oil
How does an oil spill impact marine ecosystems?
-damage or removal of marine organism will have an impact on the food web
-cause extinction in species
-reduction in fish population so no source of food for locals
2.6 MANAGEMENT OF OIL POLLUTION
Reducing oil spills:
-MARPOL treaty regulations: all tankers must be certificated to show they have appropriate
systems in place.
-Tanker design: tankers should be double hulled, if the outer layer is damaged, the contents
are held securely by the inner plate.
Minimising the impacts of oil spill:
-Booms: floating barrier to avoid further spread of oil
-Detergent sprays: adding chemicals by the help of an aircraft/helicopter\
-Skimmers: net-like, they drag oil off the surface
-Burning: setting fire on the spot
Ch 2: Agriculture and the environment
3.1 THE SOIL
Soil is composed of:
-mineral particles
-organic content
-air
-water
Where do soil components come from?
-weathering and erosion of parent rocks both physical and chemical weathering.
Types of soil: silt, sand,clay
3.2 SOILS FOR PLANT GROWTH
Factors needed to grow:
-anchorage of roots
-supply of water
-availability of important minerals
-oxygen around the roots in order to respire
3.3 AGRICULTURE
Factors that depends on agriculture output across the world:
-climate
-culture
-technology
-economics
Types of agriculture:
Arable farming: production of plants
Pastoral farming: production of animals
Mixed farming: farming that mixes both animal and plants
Extensive farming: occupying wide area, use less resources, small output
Intensive farming: occupying a small area of land, product more output
3.4 INCREASING AGRICULTURAL YIELDS
Why there is a pressure on food production:
Increase in population
Climate change
Increased standards of living
Solutions to world hunger:
-reducing the population increase
-growing more staple crops that are high yielding
-ensuring greater food equality
-eating less meat
Techniques for improving crop yield
-crop rotation: principle of growing different types of plants in different plots each year.
-fertilisers
-Irrigation
-selective breeding
-controlling the crop environment
3.5 IMPACT OF AGRICULTURE ON PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENT
Overuse of insecticides and herbicides
Misuse of irrigation
Choice of crops
Misuse of fertilisers
Overproduction
3.6 CAUSES AND IMPACTS OF SOIL EROSION
Overgrazing
Wind erosion
Overcultivation
Removal of natural vegetation
3.7 METHODS TO REDUCE SOIL EROSION
Terracing
Adding organic matter
Windbreaks
Maintaining crop cover
Irrigation
Ch 4: Water and it’s management
4.1 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER ON EARTH
3% fresh water
97% saline water
68% ice caps and glaziers
4.2 THE WATER CYCLE
Water on Earth is fixed, neither increases or decreases
Water evaporates and becomes vapour
This vapour rise to the sky, condense and form clouds
Then water will fall as snow/rain, called precipitation
Transpiration: evaporation of water from plants
Interception: process in which precipitation is stopped from reaching the ground by the
presence of trees.
Infiltration: process by which water seeps into the ground
Through flow: flows through soil
surface runoff: when water runs over the ground into the rivers
4.2 WHY HUMANS NEED WATER
Domestic:
Used for drinking, cooking
washing , flushing
watering gardens
Industrial:
Cooling in the production of electricity
Agriculture:
Irrigation
Domestic animals need water
Plants need water to transport minerals
4.4 MAIN SOURCE OF FRESHWATER FOR HUMAN USE
Surface water: rivers, lakes
Ground water: aquifer
Water from rivers-
Service reservoir: treated water
Water from the ground-
Wells
If water is stored under pressure, it is called artesian aquifer
To make water soluble for humans, desalinization:
Distillation: when water is boiled and release as vapour, leaving the salt behind
Reverse osmosis: which salt water is pumped at high pressure through very fine membrane
4.5 AVAILABILITY OF SALTY DRINKING WATER AROUND THE WORLD
Ways to ensure that water is potable:
Sanitization
Water treatment
4.6 MULTI PURPOSE DAM PROJECTS
Dam may help:
Generation of electricity
Irrigation
Tourism
Supply of water
Disadvantage:
Flooding
Relocation of people
Disrupting the life cycle of marine organisms
4.7 WATER-RELATED DISEASES
Cholera
Typhoid
Malaria