Notes on Heating and Cooling Load Calculations

• (Based on W.F. Stoecker & J.W. Jones, Refrigeration and Air

Conditioning, Chapter 4)
4-1 Introduction – Purpose of Load Calculations
1. Objective of Building Thermal Design
• Buildings are designed to maintain safe and comfortable indoor environments despite external climate
variations.
• The thermal performance of a building envelope—its walls, roof, floors, windows—determines both:
– The HVAC equipment capacity (heating and cooling loads), and
– The energy consumption required to maintain comfort.
2. Importance of Envelope Characteristics
• The thermal characteristics of materials (U-values, insulation, air tightness, solar properties) dictate:
– Rate of heat transfer into or out of the building.
– Cooling load during summer and heating load during winter.
• Efficient design minimizes equipment oversizing and energy waste.
3. Starting Point for HVAC Design
• HVAC design begins with analyzing the building envelope and comfort requirements.
• Comfort analysis involves understanding how environmental variables affect human comfort before
selecting equipment.
4. Goal of Chapter 4
• To describe procedures for evaluating heat gain and heat loss, i.e.:
– Transmission through walls, roofs, windows.
– Infiltration and ventilation.
– Internal heat from people, lights, and equipment.
– Solar radiation effects.
 4-2 Health and Comfort Criteria
1. Human Adaptability
• Humans can function under a wide range of thermal conditions, but outdoor
extremes exceed natural adaptability.
• Hence, indoor environments are conditioned for health, comfort, and
productivity.
2. Need for Environmental Control
• Conditioning ensures:
– Protection against heat stress or cold discomfort.
– Optimum humidity and air movement for respiration and skin cooling.
• HVAC systems compensate for external fluctuations to maintain a steady
microclimate indoors.
3. Conditioning Objectives
• Maintain thermal equilibrium between body heat generation and
dissipation.
• Control temperature, humidity, and air purity to keep occupants within
comfort limits.
 4-3 Thermal Comfort
1. Human Heat Balance
• Body heat is continuously generated by metabolic processes (rate depends on activity,
age, and health).
• To maintain a stable core temperature (~37°C), the body must dissipate heat at the
same rate it is produced.
2. Mechanisms of Heat Dissipation
• (Figure 4-1: Factors Influencing Thermal Comfort)
Heat loss mechanisms are:
• Convection – Air carries heat away from skin (~30%).
• Radiation – Emission to cooler surrounding surfaces (~30%).
• Evaporation – Perspiration and respiration (~40%).
– Becomes dominant during high activity or high temperature.
• Conduction – Negligible unless skin contacts surfaces.
3. Environmental Factors Affecting Comfort
• Four key environmental variables affect body heat loss:
• Air Temperature (ta) – Governs convective heat transfer.
• Mean Radiant Temperature (tr) – Average temperature of surrounding surfaces.
• Humidity – Affects evaporative cooling.
• Air Velocity (v) – Enhances convective and evaporative heat loss.
 Heat Dissipation
through body Equations:
 4-3 Thermal Comfort
4. Interaction with Clothing and Activity
• Clothing insulation (measured in clo units) resists heat flow.
• Activity level (metabolic rate) determines heat production.
• Therefore, comfort depends on the combined effects of environment, clothing, and activity.
5. Standard Comfort Ranges (ASHRAE Guidelines)
• For normally clothed, sedentary occupants:
• Operative Temperature: 20–26 °C
(average of air and mean radiant temperatures when air movement < 0.4 m/s)
• Humidity: dew-point 2–17 °C (≈ 30–60% RH)
• Air Velocity: up to 0.25 m/s
• These values correspond to “comfort zones” on the psychrometric chart.
6. Mean Radiant Temperature Concept
• Defined as the uniform temperature of an imaginary black enclosure with which the occupant would
exchange the same amount of radiant energy as in the actual, nonuniform environment.
• Radiant effects are as important as air temperature, especially near cold windows or warm walls.
7. Practical Design Considerations
• Occupants can extend their comfort range by:
– Adjusting clothing seasonally.
– Using localized air motion (fans).
Example: A person in light clothing tolerates higher air temperatures if air velocity is high; a person in
heavy clothing remains comfortable at lower temperatures.
 4-4 Air Quality
Importance of Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
• To achieve thermal comfort, controlling temperature and humidity is
essential — but equally critical is maintaining air purity.
• Air quality must be managed to ensure a healthy, odor-free, and
comfortable indoor environment. Contaminants can originate from both
internal and external sources.
• ➤ Internal sources
• Occupants (body odor, CO₂, smoke, moisture from respiration)
• Building materials (formaldehyde, volatile organic compounds, outgassing)
• Equipment and processes (printers, cooking, industrial fumes)
• ➤ External sources
• Outdoor pollutants drawn in by infiltration or ventilation (dust, smoke,
exhaust gases)
• Indoor air quality is therefore controlled by removing contaminants or
diluting them using ventilation.
 Definition of Ventilation
Ventilation is the process of supplying air to a
space by natural or mechanical means. Usually,
the supplied air is a mixture of outdoor (fresh)
air and recirculated air. The outdoor air serves as
the diluting agent, reducing the concentration of
indoor contaminants.
Principles of Ventilation for Air Quality
Ventilation provides the following functions:
– Dilution: Reduces the concentration of indoor
contaminants by mixing outdoor air.
– Removal: Actively exhausts polluted air (e.g., from
kitchens, restrooms).
• Normally, the objective is comfort (removing
odor and irritation) rather than eliminating
toxic pollutants, but potential contaminants
must never be ignored.
 Outdoor-Air Requirements
• When outdoor air is used for dilution, its own
quality must meet minimum air-quality
standards.
If it does not, additional filtration or cleaning is
required.
• ASHRAE Standard 62 (as cited in the textbook)
prescribes:
• The minimum quantities of outdoor air per
person for various occupancies.
• The method for determining proportions of
outdoor and recirculated air.
Table 4-1 — Outdoor-Air Requirements for Ventilation

• Interpretation
• Areas that permit smoking need larger ventilation rates to dilute tobacco smoke.
• If smoking is restricted to part of the building, apply the higher ventilation rate
only where smoking occurs.
 Recirculated-Air and Outdoor-Air Mixing
• To minimize energy usage while maintaining air quality, a portion of air may be
recirculated after filtering.
• Equations Governing Air Recirculation
• ASHRAE provides two related equations to determine the allowable recirculation
rate and total ventilation rate.
Equations Governing Air Recirculation
Example 4-1 — Ventilation Rate Calculation
Filter Efficiency for Different Applications
 Practical Design Considerations
• Ventilation requirements must balance comfort, health,
and energy use.
• Use separate zones for smoking and nonsmoking areas.
• Recirculation conserves energy but requires effective
filtration.
• Contaminants other than occupancy (chemical emissions,
radon, etc.) may require continuous ventilation even
during unoccupied periods.
• Air-distribution design (duct placement, diffuser location)
must prevent localized buildup of CO₂, odors, or
particulates.
• During extreme outdoor conditions, recirculation
significantly reduces HVAC energy consumption.
Summary of Key Points
 Energy and Comfort Relationship
• Ventilation air represents a significant load on HVAC
equipment:
• Heating Load: Outdoor air must be warmed in winter.
• Cooling Load: Outdoor air must be cooled and
dehumidified in summer.
• Hence, recirculated filtered air is favored whenever
outdoor air quality allows.
Key Takeaway
• Air quality is achieved through balanced ventilation —
enough outdoor air to dilute contaminants, combined
with filtration and recirculation to save energy.
Practice Problems on Air Quality and Ventilation Design
Example 4-B — Ventilation with Air Cleaning (Classroom)
Example 4-C Effect of Filter Efficiency on Energy Demand
Example 4-D — Ventilation for a Mixed-Use Building
Example 4-E Evaluating Ventilation Energy Load
Summary of Example Concepts
 4-5 Estimating Heat Loss and Heat Gain

• The main objective of load estimation in HVAC design is to

determine:
• the required heating or cooling capacity of the equipment,
and
• the distribution of loads across building elements (walls,
roof, windows, infiltration, etc.).
• Accurate load estimation ensures that the system:
• Maintains indoor comfort conditions under peak load
(extreme) conditions.
• Avoids oversizing, which causes short cycling, poor
humidity control, and wasted energy.
• Avoids undersizing, which leads to discomfort and inability
to meet design temperatures.
Factors Affecting Heat Transfer
Role of Heat-Loss and Heat-Gain Calculations
 Basis of Design: Peak Conditions
• The heating load is calculated for the coldest likely
outdoor temperature, typically the 97.5 % design
temperature (the outdoor dry-bulb temperature that is
equaled or exceeded 97.5 % of winter hours).
• The cooling load corresponds to the hottest likely
solar/air combination, often the 2.5 % design
temperature (exceeded only 2.5 % of summer hours).
• These design data (temperature, humidity, and solar
intensity) are obtained from standard meteorological
handbooks or ASHRAE climatic data.
 Categories of Heat Loads
• Stoecker & Jones identify four principal categories of heating and cooling
loads, illustrated in Figure 4-2.
Figure 4-2 — Categories of Heating
and Cooling Loads
Explanation of Each Component
Transmission Loads
 2. Solar Loads
Solar Loads
• Caused by solar radiation entering through
transparent areas or heating opaque surfaces.
• Dependent on:
– Solar orientation (north, south, east, west)
– Shading conditions
– Type of glass and surface color.
• Solar load is generally positive (gain) for
cooling calculations.
3. Infiltration Loads
 4. Internal Loads
4. Internal Loads
• Generated inside the space by:
– Occupants – sensible and latent heat from
metabolism.
– Lighting – converts electrical energy to
radiant/convective heat.
– Equipment – computers, motors, appliances.
• Must be carefully estimated because in many
commercial buildings internal loads dominate
the cooling requirement.
 Interactions Between Load
Components
Interactions Between Load Components
• All four loads occur simultaneously, influencing indoor temperature and
humidity.
• The HVAC system compensates dynamically by heating, cooling,
humidifying, or dehumidifying the air to maintain steady comfort
conditions.
• The total load at any instant is the sum of individual contributions:
Load Categories and Their Seasonal
Role
 Peak-Load Design Philosophy
• System design uses steady-state, peak
outdoor conditions to size HVAC equipment.
• This ensures that even at extreme weather,
the system maintains indoor comfort.
• In practice, actual operating loads are lower
for most of the year, allowing the system to
modulate or cycle down.
 Sources of Standard Data
• Engineers typically obtain:
• Outdoor design conditions (temperature,
humidity, solar radiation) from ASHRAE
climatic data tables.
• Material U-values and R-values from building
material standards.
• Occupancy and internal load data from
handbooks or field measurements.
Illustrative Example — Estimating Heat Gain Through a Room Envelope
 4-6 Design Conditions
Purpose of Design Conditions
• The design condition defines the environmental
state (temperature, humidity, solar radiation,
wind, etc.) used when calculating heating or
cooling loads.
• Because outdoor weather and indoor use both
vary widely, engineers select representative
extreme but realistic values—called design
conditions—that ensure indoor comfort and
system reliability without unnecessary oversizing.
 Types of Design Conditions
• Design conditions are classified into two
groups:
 Outdoor Design Conditions
• 3. Outdoor Design Conditions
• Outdoor conditions determine the maximum or minimum heat exchange through
the building envelope and with outdoor air.
These values are obtained from long-term climatic data—such as the ASHRAE
design-day tables—that list statistical extremes for thousands of cities.
 Indoor Design Conditions
Indoor Design Conditions
• Indoor conditions are selected to satisfy comfort and process
requirements.
• 4.1 Comfort Parameters
• Dry-Bulb Temperature (tᵢ):
Normally 22–27 °C for summer, 20–24 °C for winter.
• Relative Humidity (φ):
Usually 30–60 % RH for comfort; process industries may specify
stricter limits.
• Air Velocity (v):
For sedentary occupants, ≤ 0.25 m/s; higher velocities may cause
drafts.
• Indoor Air Quality:
Adequate ventilation (see §4-4) is required to maintain CO₂ < 1000
ppm and odor control.
Solar Radiation and Orientation
Key Equations Used in Design
Condition Calculations
Design Safety Margins
 4-7 Heat Transmission through
Structures
Purpose
• Heat transmission through building elements (walls,
roofs, floors, windows) is one of the most important
components of heating and cooling load calculations.
The rate of heat transfer depends on:
• Temperature difference (ΔT) between indoor and
outdoor air
• Construction materials (thermal conductivities,
thickness)
• Surface resistances (film coefficients due to convection
and radiation)
Basic Heat-Transmission Equation
Derivation of Overall Coefficient UUU
Table 4-5 — Typical Surface Heat-
Transfer Coefficients
Table 4-6 — Thermal Conductivities k
Example 4-3 — Calculating U and Heat
Flow through a Wall
Transient (Time-Lag) Effects
 4-8 Infiltration and Ventilation Loads
Definition
• Infiltration = Uncontrolled air leakage through cracks,
windows, and doors.
• Ventilation = Controlled introduction of outdoor air to
maintain air quality (see § 4-4).
• Both contribute to sensible and latent heat gains (in
cooling) or losses (in heating). Forms of Air Movement
• Wind Effect — Pressure difference on windward vs leeward
walls.
• Stack Effect — Buoyancy due to indoor–outdoor
temperature difference.
• Mechanical Effect — Door openings or unbalanced
exhaust/supply fans.
 Estimating Infiltration Rate
• Two common methods:
Infiltration Load Equations
Ventilation Load
Example 4-4 — Infiltration Cooling Load Calculation
 Internal Heat Gains
• 1. Definition
• Internal loads arise from occupants, lighting, and equipment
inside the conditioned space.
These loads are often sensible + latent, and they can
dominate in densely occupied or equipment-rich buildings.
Heat Gain from Occupants
Lighting Load
Heat Gain from Motors Located Inside
the Room
Summary of Sections 4-7 → 4-9
 4-10. Heat Gain or Loss Due to Air
Circulation and Duct Heat Transfer
• 1. Purpose and Significance
• Air supplied by a fan or blower must travel through
ducts before entering the conditioned space.
During this circulation process:
• Air gains heat (in cooling mode) from warmer
surroundings, or
• Air loses heat (in heating mode) to colder
surroundings.
• Additionally, fan motors impart mechanical energy,
which converts to heat within the airflow.
These effects together represent the air-circulation
load.
2. Components of Circulation Heat
Gain or Loss
Heat Transfer Through Duct Walls
Mean Air Temperature in Duct
Heat Added by Fan and Motor
Total Cooling Load Estimate
Sensible Heat Ratio (SHR)
Use of CLTD/CLF Method for Building
Loads
Practice Problem:
Example: