9/30/2025
Comprehensive Class Notes – Chapter 2: Thermal
Principles
• These class notes cover Chapter 2 from Refrigeration and Air
Conditioning by W.F. Stoecker & J.W. Jones.
2-1 Roots of Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
• Refrigeration and AC are applications of thermodynamics, fluid
mechanics, and heat transfer.
• Control temperature, humidity, cleanliness, air distribution.
• Thermodynamic cycles, heat transfer, and fluid mechanics form
the foundation.
1
9/30/2025
2-2 Concepts, Models, and Laws
• Mass conservation, energy conservation (First Law).
• Second Law: heat flows high→low T, work input needed for
refrigeration.
• Models: ideal gas, steady-flow; state assumptions clearly.
2-3 Thermodynamic Properties
Temperature:
• is measure of average kinetic energy.
• Conversion: T(K)=t(°C)+273.15.
• Why it matters: sets heat flow direction, defines saturation
conditions, enters property correlations.
2
9/30/2025
2) Pressure
• Definition: force per unit area. P=F/A
• Absolute vs gauge pressure.
• Units: 1Pa=1N/1m2, kPa,
bar (1 bar = 100 kPa),
1atm=101325Pa.
• Importance: determines saturation temperature; with T fixes
density.
3) Density & Specific Volume
• Density: ρ = m/V (kg/m³).,
• Specific volume: Volume occupied per unit
mass, v = 1/ρ (m³/kg).
• Use: mass flow ṁ=ρV̇, continuity eqns.
• Typical value: ρ≈1.18 kg/m³ for air at 25°C, 1
atm.
• Example: calculate mass of air in classroom at
room temp at 1 atm.
3
9/30/2025
4)Enthalpy (h)
• Enthalpy is a thermodynamic property that represents the total
heat content of a substance.
• It combines internal energy with flow work and is essential for
analyzing steady-flow devices used in HVAC&R systems.
• Equation:
h=u+pv
• Where: h = enthalpy (kJ/kg), u = internal energy (kJ/kg), p = pressure (kPa), v = specific volume (m³/kg).
Thus, enthalpy represents the energy content per unit mass including flow energy.
Enthalpy – Application in HVAC
• Thus enthalpy differences directly measure heat absorbed/rejected or work input.
• Enthalpy Change and Heat Transfer
• At constant pressure, heat added per unit mass is equal to the change in enthalpy:
q=Δh
• This is particularly convenient because many HVAC components operate at nearly constant
pressure (e.g., evaporators, condensers).
4
9/30/2025
Enthalpy – Sensible & Latent Heat
• Sensible Heat: Change in temperature with no phase change.
Δℎ=𝑐𝑝Δ𝑇
Example: Heating air in a duct from 20°C to 30°C.
• Latent Heat: Enthalpy change during phase change (liquid ↔
vapor) at constant T & P.
Δℎ=ℎ𝑔−ℎ𝑓
Example: Refrigerant evaporating in the evaporator absorbs
latent heat → provides cooling.
Enthalpy – Application in HVAC
5
9/30/2025
Example: Cooling Load Calculation
p–h Diagram (Pressure–Enthalpy Diagram)
6
9/30/2025
Internal Energy (u) – Definition
• Internal energy represents microscopic energy stored in a
system due to molecular motion and intermolecular forces.
• It does not include flow energy (p v).
• First Law (Closed System): ΔU = Q − W
where:
• ΔU = change in internal energy of system (kJ)
• Q = heat added to system (kJ)
• W = work done by system (kJ)
Relation to Enthalpy
7
9/30/2025
Equations for Internal Energy Change
Why Internal Energy Matters in HVAC
Most HVAC&R devices are steady-flow systems (compressors, evaporators,
condensers) → we usually use enthalpy.
But internal energy is key in these cases:
8
9/30/2025
Example – Internal Energy Change in a
Refrigerant
Internal Energy – HVAC Relevance &
Example
•Chillers & Boilers: Internal energy change represents heat stored or
removed in water loops when volume is constant.
•Defrost cycles: Internal energy of refrigerant changes as it is heated during
reverse-cycle defrost.
•Thermal Energy Storage: Internal energy difference between chilled water
•and warm water defines the cooling capacity of storage tanks.
9
9/30/2025
Entropy (s) – Definition
• Entropy (s) is a thermodynamic property that measures:
• Disorder or randomness of a system
• Energy dispersion – how spread-out energy is in a system
• Irreversibility – how much energy is unavailable for useful
work
• Units: kJ/kg·K (per unit mass)
Key Equation
10
9/30/2025
Why Entropy Matters in HVAC
Isentropic Process (Constant s)
11
9/30/2025
Entropy and Irreversibility
T–s Diagram in HVAC
12
9/30/2025
Example: Compressor Isentropic Efficiency
Practical HVAC Insight
• Lower entropy generation = higher efficiency.
• Good design aims to minimize irreversibilities:
– Use efficient compressors (approach isentropic
compression)
– Minimize pressure drops in evaporator/condenser
– Avoid unnecessary throttling losses
13
9/30/2025
5) Specific Heats
• Definitions: The specific heat of a substance is the quantity
of energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass
by 1 K
cp=(∂h/∂T)p — specific heat at constant pressure
(kJ/kg·K).
cv=(∂u/∂T)v — at constant volume.
• Relation (ideal gas): cp−cv=R where R is the speci ic gas
constant (for air R≈0.287 kJ/kg·K or 287 J/kg·K).
• cp≈cv For liquids and solids. (Q = mcΔT)
• Typical cp: air≈1.005 kJ/kg·K, water≈4.18 kJ/kg·K.
• Example 2.2
2-4 Perfect Gas Law
• pv=RT (R=287 J/kg·K for air).
• Example: density of air at 101 kPa, 25°C → ρ=1.18 kg/m³.
14
9/30/2025
Thermal Principles (Sections 2-4
to 2-23)
Based on W.F. Stoecker & J.W. Jones
Lecture Slides with Theory,
Equations, and Examples
Thermodynamic System & Control
Volume
• System: Defined region of space for analysis.
• Control volume: System with mass/energy
transfer across boundaries.
• Environment: Everything outside the system.
• Used for pumps, heat exchangers,
compressors, buildings.
15
9/30/2025
Conservation of Mass
• Mass cannot be created or destroyed.
Steady-Flow Energy Equation
16
9/30/2025
Heating & Cooling (Enthalpy Change)
• Rate of heat transfer: q = m(h2 - h1)
• Applicable for constant pressure, negligible
work process.
• Examples: Water heater, condenser, cooling
coil.
Adiabatic & Isentropic Processes
• Adiabatic: q = 0 (no heat transfer).
• Compression/expansion often approximated
as adiabatic.
• Isentropic process: s1 = s2, frictionless &
reversible.
• Work done: W = m(h2 - h1)
17
9/30/2025
Special Processes
18
9/30/2025
Bernoulli Equation (Special Case)
Modes of Heat Transfer
• All can be combined as resistances in
series/parallel.
19
9/30/2025
Thermal Resistance Concept
• Used for walls, heat exchangers, composite
layers.
Heat Exchanger Analysis
• Thermal circuit: fluid 1 + wall + fluid 2.
• Overall resistance: R_tot = (1/h1A1) +
ln(ro/ri)/(2πkL) + 1/(h2A2)
• q = ΔT_lm / R_tot
• Log-Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD):
• ΔT_lm = (ΔTA - ΔTB)/ln(ΔTA/ΔTB)
20
9/30/2025
Human Body Heat Transfer
Human Heat Balance
Convective Heat Loss from Body
• C = hcA(Ts - Ta)
• hc ≈ 13.5V^0.6 for forced convection
• A = 1.5–2.5 m² typical body surface area.
• Convective loss ≈ 40–60 W at comfort
conditions.
21
9/30/2025
Radiation & Evaporation
• Radiation ~ 40 W for comfort conditions.
• Effective area ≈ 70% of body surface,
emissivity ≈ 1.
• Evaporation always removes heat: q =
hfgACdiff(ps - pa)
• Sweating capacity ≈ 700–800 W for short
periods.
22