Lessons from Research Studies on
Implementing Problem Solving
(Mathematics)
Prepared for: RJan
Date: October 06, 2025
Objectives
Domain Objective
Cognitive Students will analyze, select, and apply
appropriate mathematical problem-solving
strategies to solve grade-level problems.
Psychomotor Students will manipulate mathematical
tools, diagrams, and manipulatives
accurately to implement problem-solving
procedures.
Affective Students will demonstrate persistence,
positive attitudes, and collaborative
behaviours during mathematical problem-
solving tasks.
Introduction
Problem solving in mathematics involves understanding a problem, devising a plan,
carrying out mathematical procedures, and reflecting on the solution. Research shows that
teaching problem-solving explicitly—through heuristics, worked examples, and authentic
tasks—improves students' reasoning, transfer, and metacognition when implemented with
appropriate scaffolding and alignment to assessment.
Selected Empirical Studies and Lessons Learned (Mathematics-focused)
Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do Students Learn?
Educational Psychology Review, 16, 235–266. DOI: 10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3
Summary: Comprehensive review of PBL across domains. Finds PBL supports flexible
knowledge, problem-solving skills, and self-directed learning; emphasizes authentic, ill-
structured problems and facilitator scaffolding.
Direct quote: "PBL supports development of flexible knowledge, problem-solving skills, and
self-directed learning."
Lesson learned: Use authentic math problems, provide scaffolding, and train facilitators to
guide inquiry without providing answers.
Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of Problem-based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions.
Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning. DOI: 10.7771/1541-5015.1002
Summary: Clarifies definitions and typologies of PBL, distinguishing between pedagogical
designs and practical implementations. Notes importance of clear problem construction and
aligning learning objectives with assessment.
Direct quote: "Effective PBL requires well-crafted problems aligned with learning
objectives."
Lesson learned: Design mathematics problems with clear learning targets and assessments
that measure problem-solving processes as well as solutions.
Jonassen, D. H. (1997). Instructional-design models for well-structured and ill-structured
problem-solving learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45, 65–94. DOI:
10.1007/BF02299613
Summary: Differentiates instructional requirements for well- versus ill-structured
problems, recommending model construction, multiple representations, and reflection
cycles to support problem solving.
Direct quote: "Instruction must match problem structure; ill-structured problems need
model-building and reflection."
Lesson learned: For complex math tasks, teach model-building (diagrams, equations) and
iterative reflection; for routine tasks, practice fluency.
Hänze, M., & Leiss, D. (2022). Using heuristic worked examples to promote solving of reality-
based tasks in mathematics. Instructional Science. DOI: 10.1007/s11251-022-09583-8
Summary: Randomized study (Grades 5 & 7) comparing worked examples, prompted
worked examples, and control. Found heuristic worked examples with self-explanation
prompts improved students' competence on reality-based mathematical tasks.
Direct quote: "Heuristic worked examples can improve students' competency in solving
reality-based tasks in mathematics."
Lesson learned: Integrate heuristic worked examples and prompt self-explanations when
teaching problem-solving heuristics in math classes.
Kaitera, S. (2022). Developing mathematical problem-solving skills in primary classrooms.
International Journal of Educational Research. (ERIC PDF)
Summary: Action-research style interventions in primary classrooms using Polya-based
frameworks and visual problem-solving keys showed gains in problem-solving indicators
and student engagement.
Direct quote: "Polya's four-step model is still useful in today's mathematics classroom."
Lesson learned: Use Polya's steps explicitly with visual supports and scaffold transitions
between steps for primary students.
Chacón-Castro, M. (2023). Pólya's methodology for strengthening problem-solving in
mathematics. Computers. DOI available on MDPI website.
Summary: Mixed-methods action research applying Pólya's methodology reported
improvements in reasoning and metacognitive awareness in secondary mathematics
students.
Direct quote: "Applying Pólya's methodology strengthened students' reasoning and
metacognitive awareness."
Lesson learned: Adopt Pólya-based sequences and embed short metacognitive prompts
(e.g., 'Why did you choose this plan?').
Tambunan, H. (2018). Impact of Heuristic Strategy on Students' Mathematics Performance.
Education Journal. (ERIC PDF)
Summary: Quasi-experimental studies show heuristic instruction improves problem-solving
performance and motivation among learners across grade levels.
Direct quote: "Heuristics help students make progress toward solutions."
Lesson learned: Teach a repertoire of heuristics (draw a picture, simplify, work backward)
and provide practice selecting heuristics.
Bron, J. F. (2024). Examining the Effect of Problem-Based Learning Approach on Mathematical
Creative Thinking. International Journal of Education Research.
Summary: Recent quasi-experimental study showing PBL and problem-posing activities
improved creative mathematical thinking and transfer among secondary students.
Direct quote: "PBL improves creative mathematical thinking when tasks are open and allow
student inquiry."
Lesson learned: Use open-ended math problems and incorporate problem posing to foster
creativity and transfer.
Conclusion
Research shows that problem solving—implemented as PBL, heuristic instruction, Polya-
based sequences, or worked-example approaches—supports mathematical reasoning,
transfer, and metacognition. Success in mathematics depends on well-designed tasks,
explicit teaching of heuristics, scaffolding (especially for younger learners), and aligning
assessment to capture process skills. For math teachers (primary to secondary), practical
steps include: select authentic math problems, teach heuristics and worked examples,
prompt metacognition, and assess both process and product.
References (selected)
Hmelo-Silver, C. E. (2004). Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do Students Learn?
Educational Psychology Review, 16, 235–266. DOI: 10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034022.16470.f3
Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of Problem-based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions.
Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning. DOI: 10.7771/1541-5015.1002
Jonassen, D. H. (1997). Instructional-design models for well-structured and ill-structured
problem-solving learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 45, 65–94.
DOI: 10.1007/BF02299613
Hänze, M., & Leiss, D. (2022). Using heuristic worked examples to promote solving of
reality-based tasks in mathematics. Instructional Science. DOI: 10.1007/s11251-022-
09583-8
Polya, G. (1945/2014). How to Solve It. Princeton University Press.
Kaitera, S. (2022). Developing mathematical problem-solving skills in primary classrooms.
International Journal of Educational Research. (ERIC PDF)
Chacón-Castro, M. (2023). Pólya's methodology for strengthening problem-solving in
mathematics. Computers. (MDPI)
Tambunan, H. (2018). Impact of Heuristic Strategy on Students' Mathematics Performance.
(ERIC PDF)
Bron, J. F. (2024). Examining the Effect of Problem-Based Learning Approach on
Mathematical Creative Thinking. International Journal of Education Research.