MATERIAL

INSPECTION
AND
TESTING
Introduction:
The composition, processing and heat treatment of a range of metallic and non-
metallic materials widely used in engineering have been discussed, now we should be
able to understand the problems and techniques associated with testing of material
properties. Two methods of testing available are:

 Non-destructive, and
 Destructive.

Material testing (non-destructive)

For small components produced in batches, random samples from each batch are
visually inspected and if hollow are sectioned and holes checked for correct
dimensions. However, such sampling followed by destructive examination is not
suitable for large castings that are produced singly or in small batches. For example:
o Undiscovered fault in a turbine housing,
o A faulty weld in the legs of an off-shore oil rig,
o Faulty under water pipeline,
o Each critical component of an aircraft be wholly and individually inspected.

Such tests and examinations must be non-destructive and no way affect the
properties and performance of the component or assembly examined. The non-
destructive testing techniques include the following:
 Visual inspection
 Visual inspection assisted by dye-penetration
 Ultrasonic testing
 Eddy-current testing
 Magnetic testing
 Radiography (X-rays and gamma-rays)

1. Visual examination:
This is the simplest and cheapest method to identify defects like:
o Surface cracks.
o Scabs.
o Surface porosity.
o Warping and twisting.
o Inadequate filling of the mould.

Dimensional checks and marking-out determine whether cored holes are

correctly located, centred and are of correct size.

As for welds visual inspection can show large surface cracks, insufficient fusion
or filler material, poor joint shape, surface porosity and undercuts.

2. Use of dye-penetrants:
 This technique is used to make surface cracks visible, especially fine ones that
escape visual inspection. Three methods are available:

(i) Paraffin bath:

Immerse the work piece to be inspected into a bath of hot paraffin. The
paraffin, whose viscosity has been reduced, is easily drawn into the finest
cracks by capillary attraction. The work-piece is then removed from the
bath, thoroughly wiped clean after which it is painted with whitewash.
Paraffin, seeping out from the cracks discolours the whitewash to reveal
the surface cracks.
(ii) Coloured penetrants:
Large casings are painted with special penetrants, containing brightly
coloured dyes, which are readily drawn into the cracks at room
temperature. After sometime the casing is cleaned and dusted with white
powder, just like paraffin, the penetrant seeps from the cracks to stain the
white power, thus revealing the cracks.
(iii) Fluorescent penetrants:
The casing surface is either painted or sprayed with penetrant and after
allowing for penetration, the surface is thoroughly cleaned and is
inspected under ultraviolet light. The penetrant seeping from the cracks
appears as glowing lines and spots against a dark background.

Note:
Exposure to ultraviolet light causes skin cancer and arc-eye to eyes if
viewed directly.

3. Ultrasonic Testing:
Pulses of high-frequency oscillations are generated electronically, amplified and
fed into transducers for conversion into sound waves. The transducers have
following two effects:

(i) Magnetostriction:
Since soft iron changes its dimensions in the presence alternating
magnetic fields, hence, if a soft iron, is placed in a coil connected to
alternating current, its length will increase and reduce in phase with the
alternating magnetic field. This length oscillations drives a diaphragm that
produces ultrasonic sound waves.
(ii) Piezoelectric effect:
Some crystals, such as quartz, change their size when a small electric
current pass through them or when they are stepped on. Hence, passing
alternating current through the crystal, changes its size in step with the
alternating current. Therefore, a transducer using the piezoelectric effect
can be used as an ultrasonic transmitter and a receiver.

4. Eddy-current testing:
When alternating magnetic field is associated with metallic objects,
electromagnetic induction induces eddy current into the metal, (both
ferromagnetic and non-magnetic metals). When a high-frequency alternating
current flows through a small coil, a high frequency alternating magnetic field,
called eddy current, is set up around the coil. The eddy current circulates in the
component and produce their own magnetic fields.
5. Magnetic testing:
This crack detection method is only applicable to ferromagnetic materials and is
appropriate for surface cracks less than 10 mm deep. The technique entails that
magnetic powder is spread on the surface to be tested and magnetic flux
applied to the surface. The resulting magnetic flux distortion is detected by
magnetic powder in suspension in paraffin or machine oil. The suspension
spreads thinly over the surface of the component and bunches around the
crack.

Figure 1: Magnetic crack detection.

6. Radiography:
This process enables X-rays and gamma-rays to penetrate solid objects and
when photographic film is exposed to the rays and then developed, the film
becomes dark. If a solid object is placed between the source of the rays and the
film such that it casts a shadow on the film, this area after development appears
to be less dark, figure 2.

Figure 2: Principles of radiography; (a) Arrangement; (b) Appearance of film after development.

Hence, if there is a void or crack in the material, the absorption level at this
area will be lower and the crack or void will show as a darker area, figure 3.
 Figure 3: Application of radiography; (a) Arrangement; (b) Appearance on film after development.

Material Testing (destructive)

1. Properties of materials:
Now that the composition, processing and heat treatment of a range of metallic
and non-metallic materials, widely used in engineering, have been discussed,
hence, one should be in a position to understand the problems and techniques
associated with the testing of material properties.
2. Tensile test:
This is the resistance of a material to a tensile load that is applied axially to a
specimen, figure 1 below, known as tensile test.

Figure 4: Tensile test specimen.

The machine applies a carefully controlled tensile load to a specimen and

measure the corresponding extension of the specimen. Elongation of the
specimen is measured on the gauge length Lo, the minimum parallel length Lc is
the minimum length over which the specimen maintains a constant cross
sectional before the test load is applied. The lengths:

Lo, Lc, L1 and cross-sectional area A are all specified in BS 18.

Cylindrical test specimens are proportional such that the gauge length L o and
the cross-section area maintain a constant relationship, given by:

Lo = 5.658 √A
 2
πd
But A =
4
√ A = 0.886d
Lo = 5.658 x 0.886d
Lo = 5.013d
Lo = 5d

Therefore, a specimen with a 5 mm diameter will have a gauge length of 25 mm

(i) Tensile test results:

The applied load and corresponding extension, to the specimen, are
plotted on a graph.

Figure 5: Load-extension curve for a low-carbon steel

 From A to B the extension is proportional to the applied load.

If the load is removed the specimen returns to original length,
the material shows elastic properties.
 B to C the metal suddenly extends with no increase in load, if
the load is removed the metal does not spring back to original
length, deforms plastically. This is the yield point.
Load at B
 Yield stress is the stress at yield point; .
Cross−sectional area
 C to D extension is no longer proportional to the load and if
the is removed little or no spring back occurs. The material
shows plastic properties.
 Point D is referred to as the ultimate tensile strength point
with the ultimate tensile stress (UTS) being determined by:
Load at D
.
Original cross−section area
 From D to E the specimen stretches under reduced load
conditions or necking and the stress is increasing. The
specimen finally breaks at E.
 Stress and strain are calculated as follows:

Load
Stress =
Cross−section area

L1−Lo
Strain =
Lo

(ii) Proof stress:

 This is the stress that produces a specified amount of plastic strain,
such as 0.1 or 0.2 per cent, figure 6.

Figure 6: Proof stress.

The proof test is applied for 15 seconds and removed, the

permanent elongation of the specimen is not greater than the
specified percentage of 0.2.
The stress at C produces a plastic strain of 0.2 per cent elongation
of the test specimen as represented by AB. Hence, the stress at C is
referred to as a 0.2 per cent proof stress. AB represents plastic
formation and BD elastic deformation when the specimen is
stressed at C.

(iii) Interpretation of tensile test results:

Many factors, like temperature, can affect test results, for example
high temperature reduces tensile modulus and reduces tensile
strength and ductility increases with temperature. Also, the results
are influenced by the strain rate.
Different information can be obtained from a stress-strain curves for
a variety of materials:

(a) Annealed mild steel:

 The material is ductile because it has a long elastic range.

 The material is rigid because the elastic range is steep.
 The elastic limit (limit of proportionality) occurs at 260 MPa.
 Lower yield point occurs at 230 MPa.
 Ultimate tensile stress (UTS) occurs at 400 MPa.

(b) Grey cast iron:

  The material is brittle, it has little plastic deformation before
fracture.
 It is rigid because the elastic range is steep.
 Limit of proportionality is difficult to determine but it is
approximately at 200 MPa.
 The UTS is the same as that of the breaking stress and
necking and occurs at approximately 250 MPa.

(c) Wrought light alloy:

 The material has high ductility because of long plastic range.

 The material is less rigid because the plastic range is less
steep.
 The limit of proportionality is difficult to determine instead the
proof stress is specified.

A tensile test can also allow for the elastic modulus (E) to be
calculated.

(iv) Young’s modulus of elasticity:

Robert Hooke found that within the elastic range the strain
produced in a material is proportional to the applied stress. Hence,
Thomas Young quantified this law:

Tensile∨compressive stress
E=
Strain

Force
Original cross−section area
E=
Change∈length
Original length
 Stress ϵ
E= =
Strain σ

Example 1

Calculate the modulus of elasticity for a material which produces the

following data when undergoing a test:
Applied load = 35.7 kN
Cross-section area = 25 mm2
Gauge length = 28 mm
Extension = 0.2 mm

35.7 kN
Stress = 2
25 mm

0.2 mm
Strain =
28 mm

35 x 28
E=
25 x 0.2

E = 199.92 kN/mm2
E = 200 GPa

Malleability and ductility are properties of plasticity and are defined

as follows:
 Malleability:
This is the extent to which a material can be compressed
before failure.
 Ductility:
This is the extent to which the material can elongate before
failure occurs.

All ductile materials are malleable, but not all malleable materials
are ductile as they may lack strength to withstand tensile loads.
Hence, ductility is expressed as the percentage elongation in gauge
length.

Figure 7: Elongation.

Lu−Lo
Elongation % = x 100
Lo
 Example 2

Calculate the percentage elongation of a 70/30 brass alloy, if the

original gauge length (Lo) is 56 mm and the length at fracture (Lu) is
95.2 mm.

Solution:
Lu−Lo
Elongation % = x 100
Lo
95.2−56
Elongation % = x 100
56
Elongation % = 70 %

3. Impact Testing
This test requires striking a suitable specimen with a controlled blow and
measuring the energy absorbed in bending or breaking the specimen, this
energy value indicates the toughness the of the material.

Figure 8: Impact loading; (a) High carbon steel rod (1.0%) annealed easily bends. (b) After hardening and lightly tempered the rod breaks, the
rod breaks after heating with the hammer.