Chapter 1
Covalent Bonding
and
Shapes of Molecules
Electronic Structure of Atoms
Each shell can hold 2n2 electrons (n = 1, 2, 3, 4......)
Electronic Structure of Atoms
Shells are divided into subshells called
orbitals, which are designated by the
letters s, p, d,…
s p d
orbital orbital orbital
Electronic Structure of Atoms
Electronic Structure of Atoms
Lewis Structures of Atoms
Valence shell: The outermost electron shell of an atom.
Valence electrons: Electrons in the valence shell of an atom,
which are used in forming chemical bonds.
Elements
Compounds and Molecules
⦿ Only 118 elements can form enormous numbers of compounds.
⦿ Compounds: substance that consists of two or more different elements with their
atoms in a definite ratio. (molecular compounds, ionic compounds, metallic
compounds, covalent compounds, etc.)
⦿ Molecule: a discrete group of atoms bonded together in a specific arrangement.
⦿ Molecular formulas
⚪ Number of each atom is indicated by a subscript
⚪ Examples
⚫ Water, H 2O
⚫ Ammonia, NH 3
Lewis Model of Bonding
Octet rule
Atoms bond together so that each
atom in the bond acquires the
duplet electron configuration of the noble
gas nearest it in atomic number.
octet
An atom that gains electrons
becomes an anion.
An atom that loses electrons
becomes a cation.
Lewis Model of Bonding
Ionic Bond
Lewis Model of Bonding
Covalent
Bond
+ -
+ -
+ + - - +
1s1 1s1 1s2 1s2
Lewis Model of Bonding
Bonding pairs (shared
electrons)
lone pairs (unshared
electrons)
Molecular Representation
Molecular
formula
Structural
formula
Electronegativity
Electronegativity:
A measure of the force of
an atom's attraction for
the electrons it shares in
a chemical bond with
another atom.
Electronegativity and Chemical Bonds
Ionic
Bonds
E.N. = 0.9 E.N. = 4.0
Electronegativity and Chemical Bonds
Covalent
Bonds
+ -
+ -
+ + - - +
1s1 1s1 1s2 1s2
Polar Covalent Bonds
The more electronegative atom has a partial
δ
negative charge, indicated by the symbol –.
The less electronegative atom has a partial positive
δ
charge, indicated by the symbol +.
Lewis Structures of Molecules
Halogen
Number of Covalent Bonds
1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
in Most Molecules
Lewis Structures of Molecules
H has one bond.
C has 4 bonds and no unshared electrons.
N has 3 bonds and 1 unshared pair of electrons.
O has 2 bonds and 2 unshared pairs of electrons.
Halogen (X) has 1 bond and 3 unshared pairs of electrons.
Drawing Lewis Structures Terminal atoms: one bond formation
- H (duplet), halogens (F, Cl, Br, I)
Linking atoms: two bond formation
- O, S, etc.
Central atoms: multiple bond formation
- B, C, N, etc.
1. Count the total number of valence
electrons.
2. Calculate the total number of electrons needed. (Octet
rule)
3. Calculate the number of shared
electrons.
4. Calculate the number of covalent
bonds.
5. Draw the skeleton
structure.
6. Distribute the other electrons to the structure. (Octet
rule)
7. Draw the total
charge.
Drawing Lewis Structures: H2O
1. Count the total number of valence
Oxygen – electrons.
6 electrons
Total: 8 electrons
2 Hydrogen – 2 electrons
2. Calculate the total number of electrons needed. (Octet rule)
Oxygen – 8 electrons
12 electrons would be
2 Hydrogen – 4 electrons
needed.
3. Calculate the number of shared
electrons.
8 electrons are present.
12 - 8 = 4 electrons must be shared.
12 electrons are
needed.
4. Calculate the number of covalent
bonds.
4 electrons : 2 covalent
bonds
Drawing Lewis Structures: H2O
4
5. Draw the skeleton electrons!
structure.
(X)
6. Distribute the other electrons to the structure. (Octet
rule)left. (8 - 4 = 4)
Now we have 4 electron
7. Draw the total
charge.H O: charge 0
2
Drawing Lewis Structures: H2CO
1. Count the total number of valence
Oxygen – electrons.
6 electrons
2 Hydrogen – 2 electrons Total: 12 electrons
Carbon – 4 electrons
2. Calculate the total number of electrons needed. (Octet rule)
Oxygen – 8 electrons
2 Hydrogen – 4 electrons 20 electrons would be
Carbon – 8 electrons needed.
3. Calculate the number of shared
electrons.
12 electrons are
20 - 12 = 8 electrons must be shared.
present.
20 electrons are
4. Calculate the number of covalent
needed.
bonds.
8 electrons : 4 covalent
bonds
Drawing Lewis Structures: H2CO
5. Draw the skeleton
structure.
In most cases, oxygen can
make below two bonds.
6. Distribute the other electrons to the structure. (Octet
Now we have 4 electronrule)
left. (12 - 8 = 4)
7. Draw the total
charge. H CO: charge 0
2
Molecular Shapes
Valence Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory
Electron pairs (lone pairs & bonding pairs) repel each other.
# of E.P 2 3 4 5 6
linea Trigonal Tetrahedron Trigonal Octahedro
r planar bipyrami n
Molecular Shapes
The strength of repulsions: shared pair < unshared pair
Molecular Shapes
Molecular Shapes
Bond Angles?
Molecular Polarity
Nonpolar Molecules : zero or negligible polarity
Polar Molecules: Significant polarity
Molecular Polarity
Molecular Polarity
Resonance
Drawing the Lewis structure of NO3-
1. Count the total number of valence
Nitrogen – electrons.
5 electrons
3 Oxygen – 18 electrons Total: 24 electrons
- 1 charge – 1 electrons
2. Calculate the total number of electrons needed. (Octet rule)
Nitrogen – 8 electrons
3 Oxygen – 24 electrons 32 electrons would be
needed.
3. Calculate the number of shared
electrons.
24 electrons are
32 - 24 = 8 electrons must be shared.
present.
32 electrons are
4. Calculate the number of covalent
needed.
bonds.
8 electrons : 4 covalent
bonds
Resonance
5. Draw the skeleton
structure.
6. Distribute the other electrons to the structure. (Octet
Now we have 16 electronrule)
left. (24 - 8 = 16)
7. Draw the total
charge.
Resonance
Identical N–O bond lengths of 124 pm
(> 120 pm for N=O, < 140 pm for N–O)
Delocalized electrons over three oxygen atoms
Resonance structure
A way to describe molecules and ions for which no single Lewis structure provides a
truly accurate representation
The molecule or ion is a hybrid of the various contributing structures.
Resonance
Orbital Overlap Model of Covalent Bonding
s
orbital p orbital
In forming the covalent bond in H–H, for example, there
is overlap of the 1s orbitals of each hydrogen.
σ
Sigma ( ) bond between two orbitals
Hybrid Atomic Orbitals
1 s orbitals + 3 p orbitals
4 sp3 orbitals
sp3 Hybrid Orbitals
σ
4 bonds between four s orbitals
σ
3 bonds between three σ
2 bonds between two s
s (H) and three sp3 (N). (H) and two sp 3 (O).
of H and four sp3 of C.
sp2 Hybrid Orbitals
1 s orbitals + 2 p orbitals
3 sp2 orbitals
Remaining p orbital?
: perpendicular to the plane of hybrid orbitals
σ bond between s (H) and sp 2 (C)
σ bond between sp 2 (C) and sp2 (C)
sp2 Hybrid Orbitals
π
pi ( ) bond between two parallel p orbitals
Double bond: 1 σ bond + 1 π bond
sp Hybrid Orbitals
1 s orbitals + 1 p orbitals
2 sp orbitals
Remaining p orbitals?
: perpendicular to each other and to the line of
hybrid orbitals
σ bond between s (H) and sp (C)
σ bond between sp (C) and sp (C)
sp Hybrid Orbitals
π
two pi ( ) bonds between four parallel p orbitals
Triple bond: 1 σ bond + 2 π bond
Hybrid Orbitals
Hybrid Orbitals