Course Code Course Title L T P S C

AENG 251 Farm Machinery and Power 2(1+1) 1 - 1 - 2

Module 1: Farm power and Farm tractor

Source of different farm power, Status of farm power in India, farm mechanization
concept, and indicator., Classification and selection of tractors, components of tractor.
SOURCES OF FARM POWER
A farm power for various agricultural operations can be broadly classified as:
 Tractive work such as seedbed preparation, cultivation, harvesting and transportation,
and
 Stationary work like silage cutting, feed grinding, threshing, winnowing, and lifting of
irrigation water.
These operations are done by different power sources, namely human, animal, oil engines,
tractors, power tillers, electricity, and renewable energy (biogas, solar, and wind). e power
available for agricultural workers, draught animals, tractors, power tillers, diesel engines, and
electric engines were 0.08, 0.07, 1.93, 0.02, 0.37, and 0.57 kW/ha, respectively in 2021-22.
HUMAN POWER
Human beings are the main power source for operating small tools and implements.
They are also employed for doing stationary work like threshing, winnowing, chaff cutting,
and lifting irrigation Water. It is generally believed that surplus human power is available for
agricultural operations in India. According to 2023 census figures, the total Indian rural
population is about 142.8 crores. Of the total rural population, only 30 percent is available for
doing farm work. Hence the total number of persons available would be about 142.8 x 0.30 =
42.84 crores. This figure includes both the landless laborers as well as the owners of farms in
the country. On average, a man develops nearly 0.1 horsepower (hp.). Therefore, the total
power available through human sources may be about 4.28 crore hp. However, there is a
steady decline in the number of landless laborers available for doing farm work in rural areas.
Managing Labor Peaks: In the crop production system, labor peaks develop due to
high labor demands in operations, which cannot be or have not been mechanized so far. For
example, operations like transplanting paddy, weeding and inter-culture operations, or
harvesting of crops demand a large number of human laborers on each of the farms in the
region. Such peaks have to be managed if one desires to have a high return from his
enterprise. In general, the peaks are managed as follows:
i) Increasing the working hours.
ii) Extending the period of operations.
iii) Adjusting the cropping pattern.
iv) Mechanizing the operations, wherever possible.
v) Decreasing the intensity of some operations.
ANIMAL POWER
The most important source of power on farms all over the world and particularly in
India is animal. It is estimated that nearly 80 percent of the total draft power used in
agriculture throughout the world is still provided by animals, although the number of
agricultural tractors has doubled every ten years since 1930. India with its 94.16 crore cattle
possesses the largest number of cattle in the world. Among them, bullocks and buffaloes
happen to be the principal sources of animal power on Indian farms. However, camels,
horses, donkeys, mules, and elephants are also used for farm work. The average force a
bullock can exert is nearly equal to one-tenth of its body weight. But for a very short period,
it can exert many more times the average force. Generally, a medium size bullock can
develop between 0.50 to 0.75 hp. Thus, the variation in power developed by animals is
considerable. Small-size bullocks are not able to develop even 0.50 hp and most of them are
not fit for heavy work. Animals Can be a very cheap source of farm power if raised by the
farmer himself. It becomes the costliest source if the animal has to be bought from outside.
Considering the overall situation of the draft animals available in India, it is estimated that the
total work animals may be about 30.76 crores in number, that is 30.76 x 0.50 = 3.076 crore
hp.
MECHANICAL POWER
The third important source of farm power is mechanical power which is available
through tractors and oil engines. The oil engine is a highly efficient device for converting fuel
into useful work. The efficiency of a diesel engine varies between 32 and 38 percent, whereas
that of the carburetor engine is in the range of 25 and 32 percent. In recent years, diesel
engines and tractors have gained considerable popularity in agricultural operations. Small
pumping sets within the 3 to 10 hp range are very much in demand. Likewise, oil engines of
low to medium speed developing about 14 to 20 hp are successfully used for flour mills, oil
Ghani’s, cotton gins, etc. Diesel engines of the larger size are used on tractors. It is estimated
that about one million tractors of about 25 - 35 bhp range are in use for agricultural
operations in India. Similarly, the total number of oil engines for stationary work may be
taken as about 60 lakhs of 5 hp each. Thus, the total power available from mechanical
sources would work out to be 55 million hp (Oil engines = 0.60 x 5 = 3.0 crore hp,
tractors = 0.1 × 35 = 3.50 crore hp.
ELECTRICAL POWER
Nowadays electricity has become a very important source of power on farms in
various states of the country. It is steadily becoming more and more available with the
increase of various river valley projects and thermal stations. On average about 1/10th of the
total electrical power generated in India, is consumed for farm work. The largest use of
electric power in rural areas is for irrigation and domestic water supply. Besides this, the use
of electric power in the dairy industry, cold storage, fruit processing, and cattle feed grinding
has tremendously increased.
RENEWABLE ENERGY
It is the energy mainly obtained from renewable sources of energy like sun, wind, biomass,
etc. Biogas energy, wind energy, and solar energy are used in agriculture and domestic
purposes with suitable devices. Renewable energy can be used for lighting, cooking, water
heating, space heating, water distillation, food processing, water pumping, and electric
generation. This type of energy is inexhaustible. Usage of renewable energy sources.
• Solar energy– Solar dryers, lanterns, cookers, solar still, solar refrigeration, solar
lighting, etc
• Wind energy- Water pumping, electricity generation, etc.
• Biomass energy– Gasifiers to produce producer gas, pyrolysis to produce liquid fuels,
Biogas, etc
• Tidal energy – electricity generation
• Geothermal energy– Heat and electricity production.
WIND POWER
The availability of wind power for farm work is quite limited. Where the wind
velocity is more than 32 kmph, windmills can be used for lifting water. Even today in India
wind power has not been fully harnessed. The most important reason is its uncertainty.
Experimental results show that a windmill having a 3 to 6 m diameter wheel mounted on a
12.0 m tower can produce from 0.1 to 0.9 hp with the wind velocity varying from 6.4 to 37
km/h. Thus, the average capacity of a windmill would be about 0.50 hp. There are about 2540
mills installed in India. Hence the total output may be about 1250 hp only, but it is one of the
cheapest sources of farm power available in the country. Ministry of Non-Conventional
Energy, Govt. of India has been making efforts to popularize the windmill for power
generation and water lifting in rural areas. But this source could not become attractive due to
the following limitations of the system:
• Initial investment is high,
• Repair facilities are not available in rural areas,
• Even the matching pump sets and electric generators are not readily available in
the country,
• It is not suitable for all situations in the country. The present, windmills have a
limited scope of use in the country.
Merits and Demerits of different sources of farm Power
Sources of farm power Merits Demerits
Human power Easily available and used for Costliest power compared to
all types of work such as all other forms of power, very
plowing, soil leveling, low efficiency, requires full
constructing bunds, drains, maintenance when not in use,
crop harvesting and also affected by weather
transporting, grain conditions and seasons.
processing and pest control,
etc.
Animal power Easily available, used for all Not very efficient, Seasons
types of work, Low initial and weather affect the
investment, Supplies manure efficiency, cannot work at,
to the field and fuels to stretch, require full
farmers, Multipurpose use maintenance when there is no
for meat and milk, Cheap to farm work, creates an
maintain. unhealthy and dirt atmosphere
near the residence, Very slow
in doing work and Animals
need feeding and protection
against pests and disease.
Mechanical power Efficiency is high; not Initial capital investment is
affected by weather; can run high; fuel is costly and repairs
at a stretch; requires less and maintenance need
space and cheaper form of
 power, operate in harder technical knowledge.
conditions than animals or
humans, operate in both wet
and dry conditions
Electrical power A Very cheap form of power; Initial capital investment is
high efficiency; can work at high; requires a good amount
a stretch; maintenance and of technical knowledge and it
operating cost is very low causes great danger if handled
and not affected by weather without care.
conditions.

STATUS OF FARM POWER

Farm power is an important input in agriculture which helps in timely field operation
by operating different types of farm equipment and stationary machines such as:
(i) Threshers
(ii) Shellers
(iii) Cleaners
(iv) Graders
(v) Irrigation equipment
(vi) Post-harvest equipment
Agriculture is the most important sector of the Indian economy Most of the farming is
done on small holdings. About 75% of farm holdings belong to small and marginal farmers,
and about 25% belong to semi, medium, and large farm holders. Draft animals and farm
workers are important sources of farm power. Increasing farm power is strongly influenced
by the following factors:
(a) Farm size
(b) Cost of farm labor
(c) Availability of suitable machines
(d) the Pressing need of farmers and the socio-economic compulsions of local people
to have custom hiring services.
The farming system continues to utilize manual labor, animal power, and tractor-
based technology in almost all operations. Agricultural machinery and implements are
capable of doing field operations of better quality and in lesser time.
 The economic progress of a nation depends directly upon the availability of energy
and its consumption for fruitful utilization. Increased energy input in agriculture directly or
indirectly increases the production of crops. It is an established fact that inadequacy of power
and machinery results in poor yield in general. In order to bring more land under cultivation
and to improve productivity, it is necessary to introduce other sources of power like tractors,
power tillers, oil engines, self-propelled machines, electric motors, and renewable energy
(especially windmills for water pumping). More and more applications of these devices call
for more and more machinery to carry out the required operations in a short period.
Availability of adequate farm power is very crucial for timely farm operations for
increasing production and productivity and reducing losses. With the increase in intensity of
cropping, the turnaround time is drastically reduced, which demands availability of adequate
power for timely farm operations for subsequent crop. Though we are witnessing
considerable progress in farm mechanization, its spread across the length and breadth of our
country still remains uneven. Our farm power availability is at 2.49 Kw/ha in year 2018-19
which is much lower as compared to Korea (+7 kw/ha), Japan (+14kw/ha), USA(+7kw/ha).
The negative compound annual growth rate in net sown area is observed to be 0.084
percent at the national level from the year 1990-91 to 2014-15. Farm workers and the draft
animal population are also declining. The share of farm women is expected to increase in
agriculture which suggests gender-friendly prime mover for various mobile and stationary
farm operations. The share of mechanical power is 74.42 percent of the total available power
of 386.576 million KW in the year 2020-21. Mobile power plays a significant role in
increasing food grain productivity in the country. The power availability per ha in the year
2020-21 is 2.761 kW. Of this power availability per ha from tractor, power tiller, diesel
engine, electric motor, animal, and human is 1.64kW (59.38%), 0.03kW (1.02%), 0.39kW
(14.028%), 0.54kW (19.57%), 0.084kW (3.025%) and 0.080kW (2.98%), respectively. The
declining trend of human and draft animals in the country suggests the availability of small

power sources (walk-behind type) at the catchment or household level for the reduction of the
drudgery of farm workers with an overall increase in productivity.
Source: Singh and Singh, (2021)- Farm Power Availability and its Perspective in Indian
Agriculture
Average Command Area:
(i) One pair of draught animals – 2 ha
(ii) Power tiller (7.46 kw) – 5ha
(iii) Tractor (26.1 kw) – 15ha
For 1000 hectares of cultivated land, the bullocks, power tiller and tractors are
generally required as follows:
(i) Bullocks- 500 pairs
(ii) Power tiller- 200
(iii) Tractor- 67
Studies have shown that about 54% energy in crop production comes from direct
sources like:
(i) Mechanical power
(ii) Electrical power
(iii) Human power
(iv) Draught animals
The remaining 46% power comes from indirect sources like:
(i) Fertilizers
(ii) Chemicals
(iii) Seeds
(iv) Farmyard manure
Operation-wise, irrigation takes the maximum energy followed by harvesting,
threshing, tillage, transport, sowing weeding, fertilizer application, spraying, and post-harvest
operations.
Since the cultivated area cannot be increased, the increased production will be
possible only by increased productivity and increased intensity of cropping. This will call for
precision farming and timely farm operations. This requires high-capacity machines and
precision equipment for better farming. Farm power availability will have to be increased
substantially for profitable farming.
I.C.A.R. project requirements of food grains and farm power for the year 2020 are as follows:
1. Production of grains – 2300 kg/ha
2. Farm power – 2 kw/ha
Draught animal is going down day by day hence the additional requirement of farm power
has to come from mechanical and electrical sources. It is visualized that by 2020, the power
position will be as follows:
(i) Animate power (Human + Animal) – 0.1 kw/ha
(ii) Mechanical power- 1.4kw/ha
(iii) Electrical power – 0.5 kw/ha
(iv) Total power – 2 kW/ha
MECHANIZATION
Agricultural mechanization involves the design, manufacture, distribution, use, and
servicing of all types of agricultural tools, equipment, and machines. it includes three mains
power sources: human, animal, and mechanical with special emphasis on mechanical
(tractive
power).
Farm mechanization: is technically equivalent to agricultural mechanization but refers to
only those activities normally occurring inside the boundaries of the farm unit or at the farm
unit level (for example village, community, co-operatives, etc.).
Tractorization: refers to the application of any size tractor to activities associated with
agriculture.
Motorization: refers to the application of all types of mechanical motors or engines,
regardless of energy source, to activities related to agriculture.
Agricultural implements: are devices attached to, pulled behind, pushed, or otherwise used
with a human, animal, or mechanical power sources to carry out an agricultural
operation.
Agricultural machinery: is a general term used to describe tractors, combines, implements,
machines, and any other device more sophisticated than hand tools which are animal or
mechanically powered.
Agricultural equipment: generally, refers to stationary mechanical devices such as irrigation
pump-set.
FARM MECHANIZATION
Farm mechanization is the application of engineering and technology in agricultural
operations to do a job in a better way to improve productivity. This includes the development,
application, and management of all mechanical aids for field production, water control,
material handling, storing, and processing. Mechanical aids include hand tools animal-drawn
implements, power tillers, tractors, oil engines, and electric motors, processing, and hauling
equipment.
Farm mechanization does not mean the use of only big machines and tractors for farm
work. Mechanization is a need-based process that provides a sufficient time gap for the self-
adjustment of various inputs without causing a sudden impact of changes.
Different stages of agricultural development and level of mechanization are:
1. Manual
2. Using manual tools
3. Using animals for implements and machines
4. Using animal and mechanical power combined
5. Using mechanical power
6. Automatic machines

Farm Mechanization Strategy

The resources like land and water are limited and shrinking as population increases. Hence
utmost care is needed for boosting agricultural production with limited water and land. The
level of mechanization in the country as a whole is still at a very low level.
The main reasons are:
1. Small and scattered holdings.
2. Poor investing capacities of the farmers.
3. Non-availability of good quality implements/machinery.
Due to a shortage of labor at the peak time of sowing, harvesting, and threshing,
farmers are more inclined towards the use of agricultural machinery. This demands, a good
quality machines and better sales and service facilities. Hence farm machinery industry will
have to modernize their products & also improve comfort, safety, and energy conservation.
New machines for horticulture, plantation & agro-forestry are needed by the farmers.
Present Farm Mechanization Thrust:
1. To increase yields and cropping intensity
2. To increase the income of agricultural workers
3. To mechanize the farms of all categories
4. To reduce health hazards and increase safety in the operation of farm machinery
5. To utilize properly natural resources such as land and water.
6. To utilize efficiently the inputs such as seeds, chemicals, and fertilizers.
7. To reduce cost of production.
8. To provide dignity to farm worker.
Farm Mechanization Indicator:
Mechanization is indicated by the following ways:

1. Farm power per unit area

2. Ratio of mechanical power over total farm power
3. Energy ratio
1. Farm Power Per Unit Area:

One of the ways of viewing mechanization is by the availability of farm power per unit
area i.e., kw/ha. Farm power availability was 0.25 in 1950- 1951 and it increased to 1.35
(2000-2001). It is desirable to have 2.00 kw/ha farm power by 2020.

2. Ratio of Mechanical Power over Total Farm Power:

 The mechanization indicator has been expressed as the ratio of mechanical power over
total power used in a farm. This is expressed as follows in percentage-

Mi = Mp/ Ap +Mp

Where,

Mi = Mechanization indicator

MP = Mechanical power used on the farm

AP = Animate (Human + Animal) power used on the farm.

This ratio increased from 3.6 to 80% during 1950-51 to 1995-1996

3. Energy Ratio as Mechanization Indicator:

In many developed countries, a wide gap exists between created infrastructure and the
actual utilization of energy. Hence the ratio of actual utilized mechanical energy and total
energy (Human + Animal + Mechanical) is an indicator of Mechanization. Energy is
calculated in MJ/ha (Mega joules per hectare).

CLASSIFICATION OF TRACTORS

Tractors can be classified into three classes based on structural design:

 Wheel tractor: Tractors, having three of four pneumatic wheels are called wheel
tractors. Four-wheel tractors are most popular everywhere.
 Crawler tractor: This is also called a track-type tractor or chain-type tractor. In such
tractors, there is an endless chain or track in place of pneumatic wheels.
 Walking-type tractor (Power tiller): A power tiller is a walking-type tractor. This
tractor is usually fitted with two wheels only. The direction of travel and its controls
for field operation is performed by the operator, walking behind the tractor.

Based on purpose, the wheeled tractor is classified into three groups:

 General purpose tractor: It is used for major farm operations; such as plowing,
harrowing, sowing, harvesting, and transporting work. Such tractors have
i. Low ground clearance
ii. Increased engine power
iii. Good adhesion and
iv. Wide tires.
  Row crop tractor: It is used for crop cultivation. Such a tractor is provided with
replaceable driving wheels of different tread widths. It has high ground clearance to
save damage of crops. Wide wheel track can be adjusted to suit inter-row distance.
 Special purpose tractor: It is used for definite jobs like cotton fields, marshy land,
hillsides, gardens, etc. Special designs are there for special-purpose tractors.

SELECTION OF TRACTOR

Selection of tractor depends upon the following factors:

1) Landholding: Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally recommended to

consider 1 hp for every 1 hectare of land, in other words, one tractor of 20-25 hp is
suitable for 20 hectares farm.
2) Cropping pattern: Generally, less than 1.0 hectares/hp have been recommended
where adequate irrigation facilities are available and more than one crop is taken. So,
a 30-35 hp tractor is suitable for 25 hectares farm.
3) Soil condition: A tractor with less wheelbase, higher ground clearance, and low
overall weight may work successfully in lighter soil but it will not be able to give
sufficient depth in black cotton soil.
4) Climatic condition: For very hot zone and desert areas, air-cooled engines are
preferred over water-cooled engines. Similarly, for higher altitudes, air-cooled engines
are preferred because water is able to be frozen at higher altitudes.
5) Repairing facilities: It should be ensured that the tractor to be purchased has a dealer
at a nearby place with all the technical skills for the repair and maintenance of the
machine.
6) Running cost: Tractors with less specific fuel consumption should be preferred over
others so that running costs may be less.
7) Initial cost and resale value: While keeping the resale value in mind, the initial cost
should not be very high; otherwise, a higher amount of interest will have to be paid.
8) Test report: Test report of tractors released from farm machinery testing stations
should be consulted for guidance.

TRACTOR COMPONENTS
 A tractor is made of the following main components:

(1) I. C. engine

(2) Clutch

(3) Transmission gears

(4) Differential unit

(5) Final drive

(6) Rear wheels

(7) Front wheels

(8) Steering mechanism

(9) Hydraulic control and hitch system

(10) Brakes

(11) Power take-off unit

(12) Tractor pulley and

(13) Control panel.

Every tractor is fitted with an I. C. engine, the engine may be carburettor type or diesel
type but nowadays almost all the tractors are diesel tractors.

I.C. Engine: An internal combustion engine is a machine that converts internal energy into
mechanical energy through the combustion of fossil fuels. There are many types of internal
combustion engines. According to the type of fuels used, they can be divided into petrol
engines, diesel engines, gas (like natural gas, biogas) engines, and bi-fuel (mixing two fuels
or more) engines. Based on the number of strokes per cycle, they can be divided into the 2-
stroke engine and the 4-stroke engine. The two-stroke engine is time-tested technology and it
is lightweight and usually air-cooled. The four-stroke engine is heavier than the two-stroke
engine, so the power ratio is lower than that of the two-stroke engine, and its advantages are
higher efficiency and longer life.

A steam engine, for example, is not an internal combustion engine because the engine
part of its cylinder, piston, and so on—is quite distinct and separate from the firebox in which
the fuel is burnt.

The two basic components of an IC engine are a stationary cylinder and a motile
piston, the piston being pushed down by growing combustion gases inside the cylinder, which
in succession revolves the crankshaft and by way of a gear system in the power train drives
the vehicle.

The general principle of all I.C. engines is the same and depends on the fact that air
combined in the right proportion with any one of these fuels will form an explosive mixture.
The various types of engines differ from one another only according to the fuel used, the
exact arrangements for introducing and exploding it, and the number of cylinders.

Power transmission system

The power transmission system consists of a clutch, transmission gears, differential, final
drive, rear axle, and rear wheels. The combination of all these components is responsible for
the transmission of power from the crankshaft to the rear wheels.

The main functions of the power transmission system are:

 To transmit power from the engine to the rear wheels of the tractor.
 To make reduced speed available, the rear wheels of the tractor
 To alter the ratio of wheel speed and engine speed to suit the field conditions.
 To transmit power through right-angle drive because the crankshaft and rear axle are
normally at right angles to each other.

Clutch:

A clutch is a device, used to connect and disconnect the tractor engine from the transmission
gears and drive wheels. The clutch transmits power utilizing friction between driving
members and driven members.

Why clutch in a tractor is essential?

  The engine needs cranking by any suitable device. For easy cranking, the engine is
disconnected from the rest of the transmission unit by a suitable clutch. After starting
the engine, the clutch is engaged to transmit power from the engine to the gearbox.
 To change the gears, the gearbox must be kept free from the engine power, otherwise,
the gear teeth will be damaged and the engagement of the gear will not be perfect.
This work is done by a clutch.
 When the belt pulley of the tractor works in the field it needs to be stopped without
stopping the engine. This is done by a clutch.

The important essential features of a good clutch are:

 It should have a good ability to take a load.

 It should have a higher capacity to transmit maximum power without slipping.
 Friction surfaces should be highly resistant to heat effects.
 The control by hand lever or pedal lever should be easy.

Transmission and Torque converter gears:

A tractor engine runs at high speed, but the rear wheel of the tractor requires power at
low speed and high torque. That's why it becomes essential to reduce the engine speed and
increase the torque available at the rear wheels of the tractor because

2 πNT
BHP=
4500

Where T is torque in kg-m and N is rev/min.

If the engine hp is constant, it is obvious that for higher torque at wheels, low speed
is required and vice versa. So, the gearbox is fitted between the engine and rear wheel for
variable torque and speed. This is done by suitable design of gear and shafts. Speed varies
according to the field requirements and so several gear ratios are provided to suit the varying
conditions. Gears are usually made of alloy steel. As the tractor has to transmit heavy torque
all the time, the best quality lubricants free from sediments, grit, alkali, and moisture, is used
for lubrication purposes. SAE 90 oil is generally recommended for a gearbox. Common gears
used on tractors are of two types:

(i) Selective sliding type

(ii) Constant mesh type.
DIFFERENTIAL UNIT

A differential unit is a special arrangement of gears to permit one of the rear wheels of the
tractor to rotate slower or faster than the other. While turning the tractor on a curved path, the
inner wheel has to travel less for the tractor to move faster than the other at the turning point.
The output shaft coming from the gear box is provided with a bevel pinion at the end of the
shaft. The bevel pinion is in mesh with a large bevel wheel known as a crown wheel. The
main functions of crown wheel assembly are:

(i) to transmit power through right-angle drive to suit the tractor wheels.
(ii) to reduce the speed of rotation.

Differential lock: Differential lock is a device to joins both half axles of the tractor so that
even if one wheel is under less resistance, the tractor comes out from the mud, etc as both
wheels move with the same speed and apply equal traction.

Final drive: The final drive is a gear reduction unit in the power trains between the
differential and the drive wheels. The final drive transmits the power finally to the rear axle
and the wheels. The tractor’s rear wheels are not directly attached to the half shafts but the
drive is taken through a pair of spur gears. Each half shaft terminates in a small gear, which
meshes with a large gear called bull gear. The bull gear is mounted on the shaft, carrying the
tractor’s rear wheel. The device for final speed reduction, suitable for tractor rear wheels is
known as the final drive mechanism.

STEERING SYSTEM
The system, governing the angular movement of the front wheels of a tractor is called
the steering system. This system steering wheel minimizes the efforts of the operator in
turning the front wheel with the application of leverages.
The steering system is required to control the direction of motion of the vehicle
(tractor in our case). This is done through a series of links used to convert the rotation of the
steering wheel into a change of angle of the axis of the steering wheels. Another function of
the steering system is to provide directional stability. The motion of the vehicle being steered
needs to become straight ahead when the force on the steering wheel is removed. The design
of the steering system should be such that it should cause minimum wear on the tyres of the
wheels.

Brake system
 A brake is used to stop or slow down the motion of a tractor. It is mounted on the
driving axle and operated by two independent pedals. Each pedal can be operated
independently to assist in the turning of the tractor during the fieldwork or locked together by
means of a lock.
Brake works on the principle of friction. When a moving clement is brought into
contact with a stationary element, the motion of the moving element is affected. This is due to
frictional force, which acts in the opposite direction of the motion and converts the kinetic
energy into heat energy.
FRONT AXLE: Front axle is the unit on which the front wheel is mounted. This wheel is an
idler wheel by which the tractor is steered in various directions. The axle is a rigid tubular or
I-section steel construction pivoted at the center. There are various adjustments of the front
wheel.

TYRES: The tyres are available in many sizes with the ply ratings as 4, 6 or 8. The ply rating
of tyres indicates the comparative strength of tyres. The higher the rating, the stronger are the
tyres. The tyres size 12—38 means, that the sectional diameter of tyres is 12" and it is
mounted on a rim of 38" diameter. The inflation pressure in the rear wheels of the tractor
varies between 0.8 to 1.5 kg/cm2. The inflation pressure of the front wheel varies from
1.5to2.5kg/ cm2. Useful life of the pneumatic tyres under normal operating conditions may be
about 6000 working hours for drawbar work.

HYDRAULIC CONTROL SYSTEM

It is a mechanism in a tractor to raise, hold or lower the mounted or semi-mounted

equipment by hydraulic means. The working principle of the hydraulic system is based on
Pascal's law. This law states that the pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
equally in all directions. The small force acting on a small area can produce a higher force on
the surface of a larger area.

A simple hydraulic system consists of a pump that pumps oil to a hydraulic ram. This
pump may be driven from tractor’s transmission system or it may be mounted on its engine.
This system consists of a cylinder with a close-fitting piston like an engine cylinder. As the
oil is pumped into the closed end of the cylinder, the piston is forced along with it. The
movement of the piston is transmitted to the lower links by means of a cross shaft and lift
rods. A control valve controls the flow of oil and directs it back to the reservoir. It allows the
oil in the cylinder to flow out again when the links are to be lowered. It also traps the oil in
the cylinder when the links are to be held at any height.

TRACTOR HITCH

Implements are needed to be hitched properly for efficient and safe operation of the tractor.

Implements can be; (i) Trailed (ii) Semi mounted and (iii) Mounted.

Implements can be hitched in two ways: (a) Drawbar hitch and (b) Three point linkage.

Drawbar hitch: Drawbar is a device by which the pulling power of the tractor is
transmitted to the trailing implements. It consists of a crossbar with suitable holes,
attached to the lower hitch links. It is fitted at the rear part of the tractor.

Three-point linkage: It is a combination of three links, one is the upper link and two
are lower links, the links articulated to the tractor and the implements at their ends in
order to connect the implement to the tractor.

Advantages of three-point linkage;

(1) Easy control of working implements

(2) Quick setting of implements

(3) Automatic hydraulic control of implements such as position control, draft control,
etc.

(4) Good balancing of attached implements.

POWER TAKE-OFF UNIT (PTO): It is a part of the tractor transmission system. It

consists of a shaft, a shield, and a cover. The shaft is externally splined to transmit torsional
power to another machine. A rigid guard fitted on a tractor covers the power take-off shaft as
a safety device. This guard is called a power take-off shield. Agricultural machines are
coupled with this shaft at the rear part of the tractor. As per ASAE standard PTO speed is 540
± 10 rpm when operating under load. In order to operate a 1000 rpm PTO drive machine, a
new standard has been developed.

BELT PULLEY

All tractors are provided with a belt pulley. The function of the pulley is to transmit power
from the tractor to stationary machines by means of a belt. It is used to operate threshers,
centrifugal pumps, silage cutters, and several other machines. The pulley is located either on
the left, right or rear side of the tractor. The pulley drive is engaged or disengaged from the
engine by means of a clutch. The pulley is generally made of cast iron

CONTROL BOARD OR DASH BOARD OF A TRACTOR The control board of a tractor

generally consists of: (1) Main switch (2) Throttle lever (3) Decompression lever (4) Hour
meter (5) Light switch (6) Horn button (7) Battery charging indicator (8) Oil pressure
indicator and (9) Water temperature gauge.