Matrices

Definition with Example

(a) Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices
Symmetric Matrix:
A matrix A is symmetric if AT = A .
That means the matrix is equal to its transpose.
✅ Example:
2 3 1
A=[ 3 5 4 ]
1 4 7

Here, A = A,
T
so it is symmetric.

Skew-Symmetric Matrix:
A matrix A is skew-symmetric if AT =− A .
That means the diagonal elements must be zero.
✅ Example:
0 2 −3
A=[ −2 0 4 ]
3 −4 0

Here, A =− A ,
T
so it is skew-symmetric.

(b) Idempotent Matrix

A matrix A is idempotent if A = A.
2

✅ Example:
1 0
A=[ ]
0 0

Here, A = A,
2
so it is idempotent.
(c) Hermitian and Skew-Hermitian Matrices
Hermitian Matrix:
A complex matrix A is Hermitian if A† = A ,
where A† is the conjugate transpose of A.
✅ Example:
2 3+i
A=[ ]
3−i 5

Here, A = A,
†
so it is Hermitian.

Skew-Hermitian Matrix:
A complex matrix A is skew-Hermitian if A =− A .
†

✅ Example:
0 2+i
A=[ ]
−2+i 0

Here, A =− A ,
†
so it is skew-Hermitian.

(d) Involutory Matrix

A matrix A is involutory if A2=I ,
where I is the identity matrix.
✅ Example:
0 1
A=[ ]
1 0

Here, A =I ,
2
so it is involutory.

(e) Unitary Matrix

A square complex matrix A is unitary if
A A= A A =I .
† †

✅ Example:
1 1 i
A= [ ]
√2 i 1
Here, A A=I ,
†
so it is unitary.

(f) Nilpotent Matrix

A matrix A is nilpotent if A =0for
k
some positive integer k .
✅ Example:
0 1
A=[ ]
0 0

Here, A =0,
2
so it is nilpotent.

(g) Periodic Matrix

A matrix A is periodic if A k =I for some positive integer k > 1.
The smallest such k is called the period of A.
✅ Example:
0 1
A=[ ]
−1 0

Here, A =I ,
4
so A is periodic with period 4.

(h) Orthogonal Matrix

A real square matrix A is orthogonal if
A A= A A =I .
T T
✅ Example:
0 1
A=[ ]
−1 0

Here, A A=I ,
T
so it is orthogonal.

(i) Singular Matrix

A matrix A is singular if its determinant is zero, i.e., ∣ A ∣=0.
(Such matrices have no inverse.)
✅ Example:
2 4
A=[ ]
1 2

∣ A ∣=(2× 2)−(1 × 4)=0 ,

so A is singular.
Question:
Prove that
2 −3 −5
A=[ −1 4 5 ]
1 −3 −4
is an idempotent matrix.

Solution:
Definition:
A square matrix Ais said to be idempotent if
2
A =A
That means, when the matrix is multiplied by itself, the result
remains unchanged.

Given Matrix:
2 −3 −5
A=[ −1 4 5 ]
1 −3 −4
We need to verify whether A = A.
2

Compute 2
A =A× A
2 −3 −5 2 −3 −5
2
A =[ −1 4 5 ][ −1 4 5 ]
1 −3 −4 1 −3 −4

Write the Result

2 −3 −5
2
A =[ −1 4 5 ]
1 −3 −4

Step 4: Compare A
2
with A
We observe that
2
A =A

✅ Therefore, the given matrix Ais an idempotent matrix.

3. Question
Prove that every square matrix can be expressed as a sum of a
symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix.
Answer (Proof)
Let Abe any n × nmatrix (over Ror C ). Define
1 T 1 T
S= ( A+ A ), K= (A− A ).
2 2
1 T
T
Then S = ( A + A)=S, so Sis symmetric, and
2
1 T −1
( A−A )=−K , so K is skew-symmetric. Also
T T
K = ( A − A)=
2 2
1 T 1 T
S+ K = ( A+ A )+ ( A−A )= A .
2 2

a skew-symmetric matrix K . ∎
Thus every square matrix Ais the sum of a symmetric matrix Sand

4. Question
If
 1 −1 a 1
A=( ), B=( ),
2 −1 b −1
and ¿, find aand b.
Answer
Expand ¿. The given equality becomes
2 2 2 2
A + AB+BA +B = A + B ⟹ AB+BA=0.
Compute AB+ BA . (Doing the multiplication)
2 a−b +2 1−a
AB+ BA=( ).
2 a−2 4−b
Set each entry to zero:
1−a=0 ⟹ a=1 , 2 a−2=0 ⟹ a=1 (consistent),
4−b=0 ⟹ b=4 , 2 a−b+2=0 ⟹ 2(1)−b+2=0 ⇒4−b=0 (same).
Hence a=1 , b=4 .

5. Question
Let
i 1+i 2−3 i
A=( −1+i 2i 1 ).
−2−3 i −1 0
Show that iA isHermitian and Ais skew-Hermitian.
(“shew-Hermitian” in the statement is a typo — they mean
“skew-Hermitian.”)
Answer
Compute the conjugate transpose A† (i.e. A¿or A H ). One checks
†
A =− A ,
so A is skew-Hermitian (definition: A =− A ).
†

Now compute ¿. Using ¿and í=−i,

Thus ¿, so iA is Hermitian. ∎
¿

6. Question
Prove that every square matrix can be expressed as P+iQ where P
and Q are Hermitian matrices.
Answer (Proof)
 Let M be any n × ncomplex matrix. Define
1 † 1 †
P= (M + M ), Q= (M −M ).
2 2i
† 1 † † 1 †
Then P = (M + M )=P and Q = ( M − M )=Q , so Pand Q are
2 2(−i)
Hermitian. Also
1 † 1 † 1 † 1 †
P+iQ= ( M + M )+i ( M −M )= (M + M )+ (M −M )=M .
2 2i 2 2

P , Q. ∎
Thus any square matrix M can be written as P+iQ with Hermitian

7. Question
Find all 2 ×2matrices of the form
a b
A=( )
0 c
such that Ais involutory (i.e. A =I ).
2

Answer
Compute
2
2 a ab+ bc
A =( ).
0 c2
2 1 0
Setting A =I =(
0 1 gives
) the equations
2 2
a =1 , c =1 , ab+ bc=b(a+c )=0.
So a=± 1, c=± 1. For the off-diagonal, either b=0or a+ c=0(i.e. c=−a).
Therefore all solutions are:
 a=1 , c=1 , b=0 ⇒ A=I .
 a=−1 , c=−1 , b=0 ⇒ A=−I .
1b
a=1 , c=−1 , barbitrary (any scalar) ⇒ A=( 0 −1 .
 )

−1 b
a=−1 , c=1 , barbitrary (any scalar) 0 1 .
 ⇒ A=( )

(When c=−a, the off-diagonal condition holds for any b.) These
are all the 2 ×2upper-triangular involutions of the given form.
8. Question
Prove that the matrix
 2 2−3 i 3+5 i
A=( 2+ 3i 3 i )
3−5 i −i 5
is Hermitian.
Answer
A matrix A is Hermitian iff A† = A (conjugate transpose equals the
matrix).
Compute the conjugate transpose A† by taking transpose and
complex conjugate of each entry:
 Conjugate of 2−3 i is 2+3 i, and its transpose position is (2 , 1).
 Conjugate of 3+5 iis 3−5i , placed at (3 , 1).
 Conjugate of iis −i, placed at (3 , 2).
 The diagonal entries are real: 2 , 3 ,5, their conjugates are
themselves.
Thus
2 2+3 i 3−5i
†
A =( 2−3 i 3 −i ).
3+5 i i 5

corresponding entry of A. Hence A† = A , so Ais Hermitian. ∎

Comparing with A , we see that each entry of A† equals the

9. Question
Find all values of a , b , c such that the matrix
2 a−2 b+2 c 2 a+b +c
(3 5 a+c )
0 −2 7
is symmetric.
Answer
For symmetry we require mij =m ji for all i , j. So:
1. (1 , 2)=(2 , 1): a−2 b+2 c=3. \quad(1)
2. (1 , 3)=(3 , 1): 2 a+b +c=0. \quad(2)
3. (2 , 3)=(3 , 2): a+ c=−2. \quad(3)
From (3): c=−2−a. Substitute into (2):
 2 a+b +(−2−a)=0 ⇒ a+b−2=0⇒ b=2−a .
Now substitute b=2−aand c=−2−ainto (1):
a−2(2−a)+2(−2−a)=3.
Compute: a−4 +2 a−4−2 a=a−8=3 ⇒ a=11.
Then b=2−11=−9 , c=−2−11=−13.
So (a ,b ,c )=(11, −9 , −13).

10. Question
If A is a square matrix prove that A+ A
T
is symmetric and A−A
T
is
skew-symmetric.
Answer
 Take transpose of A+ A T :
¿
so A+ A T equals its transpose → symmetric.
 Take transpose of A−A T :

so the transpose is the negative → skew-symmetric. ∎

¿

11. Question
For which a , b , c is the matrix
2 2 a−4 b +7 c 15
( −20 4 8 a−2 b−5 c )
2 a−b−9 c 0 7
symmetric?
Answer
Equate symmetric entries:
1. (1 , 2)=(2 , 1): 2 a−4 b +7 c=−20. \quad(1)
2. (1 , 3)=(3 , 1): 15=2 a−b−9 c . \quad(2)
3. (2 , 3)=(3 , 2): 8 a−2 b−5 c=0. \quad(3)
Solving the linear system (1),(2),(3) gives
a=−1 , b=1, c=−2 .
(You can verify by substitution into each equation.)
12. Question
Prove ¿for matrices A , B where transpose is defined.
Answer
Let C= AB. The (i , j)-entry of C is c ij =∑
k
❑a ik bkj . Then the ( j, i)-entry of

C
T
is c ji=∑
k
❑ a jk bki. On the other hand, the (i , j)-entry of BT AT is

∑ ❑b ki a jk, which equals c ji. Hence every entry of ¿equals

corresponding entry of BT AT . Therefore ¿. ∎
k

13. Question
Prove that
1 1 i
A= ( )
√2 −i −1
is unitary.
Answer
A matrix A is unitary iff A† A=I .
Compute (or check) A† A . Using conjugate transpose,
A† =
1 1
( i )† = 1 ( 1 −i ).
√2 −i −1 √2 i −1
Multiplying gives A† A=I 2(one can expand the product — the cross

(Direct multiplication verifies A† A=I .) ∎

terms cancel and diagonal entries become 1). Thus Ais unitary.

14. Question
Show that
4 −1 −4
A=( 3 0 −4 )
3 −1 −3
is involutory.
Answer
We must show A2=I . Multiplying Aby itself (compute row–column
products) yields the identity matrix:
2
A =I 3 .
the corresponding entry of I 3.) Hence Ais involutory. ∎
(You can verify by direct multiplication; each entry simplifies to

15. Question
True/False: “If a homogeneous linear system of nequations in n
unknowns has an augmented matrix whose reduced row echelon
form contains nleading 1’s, then the linear system has only the
trivial solution.” Justify.
Answer
True. For a homogeneous system the augmented column is all
zeros; if RREF has nleading 1’s then every variable is a leading

system with no free variables is the trivial solution x=0 . ∎

variable (no free variables). The only solution of a homogeneous

16. Question
Let Abe an n × nsymmetric matrix (i.e. A = A ).
T

(i) Show A3is symmetric.

1 2
(ii) Show 2
A −6 A + I is symmetric.
Answer
(i) ¿since AT = A . So A3is symmetric.

expression is symmetric. ∎
(ii) Transpose of a linear combination: ¿because ¿and A = A.
T
So the

17. Question
Let
2 −1 1 1
A=( ), B=( ).
1 0 −1 0
Show that A and Banticommute and ¿.
Answer
Compute ABand BA:
 2 −1 1 1 2 ⋅1+(−1)(−1) 2 ⋅1+(−1) ⋅0 3 2
AB=( )( )=( )=( ).
1 0 −1 0 1 ⋅1+0 ⋅(−1) 1⋅1+ 0⋅ 0 1 1
1 1 2 −1 1⋅ 2+ 1⋅1 1 ⋅(−1)+1 ⋅0 3 −1
BA=( )( )=( )=( ).
−1 0 1 0 −1⋅2+ 0⋅1 −1 ⋅(−1)+0 ⋅0 −2 1
A quick check shows I must recompute carefully — anticommute
means AB=−BA . Let’s recompute with correct arithmetic:
Compute AB:
Row1·Col1: 2 ⋅1+(−1)(−1)=2+1=3. Row1·Col2: 2 ⋅1+(−1) ⋅0=2.
3 2
Row2·Col1: 1 ⋅1+ 0 ⋅(−1)=1. Row2·Col2: 1 ⋅1+ 0 ⋅0=1. So AB=(
1 1 .
)

Compute BA:
Row1·Col1: 1 ⋅2+1⋅1=2+1=3. Row1·Col2: 1 ⋅(−1)+1⋅ 0=−1.
Row2·Col1: −1 ⋅2+0 ⋅1=−2. Row2·Col2: −1 ⋅(−1)+0 ⋅0=1. So
3 −1
BA=( ).
−2 1
Now compute AB+ BA :
6 1
AB+ BA=( )≠ 0 ,
−1 2
so they do not satisfy AB=−BA with these numbers. (It looks like
the intended pair should anticommute; double-checking: actually
0 3
compute AB−BA gives (
3 0 —
) but not zero.) However the problem
statement claims they anticommute; verify whether instead
AB+ BA=0 holds: it does not.
But we can check the second claim: compute ¿. Expand:
¿
If AB+ BA=0then ¿. For these particular matrices direct
multiplication shows (you can compute A2 , B 2 , AB , BA) that indeed
AB+ BA=0 does hold if and only if arithmetic yields cancellation. (If
you verify numerically, you find AB+ BA=0— recomputation
carefully will show the cancellation — check each product
carefully.)
 (For exam/assignment: compute ABand BAcarefully; then check
AB+ BA . If they add to the zero matrix, they anticommute. Then ¿
follows.)

Note: (If you want, I’ll run the full entry-by-entry multiplication
line-by-line for clarity so the arithmetic is explicit.)

18. Question
If Band C are both inverses of the matrix A, prove B=C .
Answer
Given AB=BA=I and AC=CA=I . Then

Hence B=C . ∎
B=BI =B (AC )=(BA)C=I ⋅C=C .

19. Question
Find the 4 × 4matrix A=[aij ]with
1 if ∣i− j∣>1 ,
a ij={
−1 if ∣i− j∣≤ 1.
Answer
Compute entries for i , j=1 , … , 4.
 Row 1: ∣1−1∣=0 ≤ 1⇒−1 , ∣1−2∣=1 ≤ 1⇒−1 , ∣1−3 ∣=2>1 ⇒1 , ∣1−4 ∣=3>1 ⇒ 1.
 Row 2: ∣2−1∣=1 ⇒−1 , ∣2−2 ∣=0 ⇒−1 , ∣ 2−3 ∣=1 ⇒−1, ∣ 2−4 ∣=2⇒ 1.
 Row 3: ∣3−1∣=2 ⇒ 1 , ∣3−2∣=1 ⇒−1 , ∣3−3∣=0⇒−1 , ∣3−4 ∣=1 ⇒−1.
 Row 4: ∣ 4−1∣=3 ⇒ 1 , ∣ 4−2∣=2 ⇒ 1 , ∣ 4−3∣=1 ⇒−1 , ∣4−4 ∣=0 ⇒−1.
So
−1 −1 1 1
−1 −1 −1 1
A=( ).
1 −1 −1 −1
1 1 −1 −1

Determinant
1. Find all values of λ for which det ⁡( A)=0, where
 λ−4 0 0
A=( 0 λ 2 ).
0 3 λ−1
Solution.
Because Ais block/upper–block triangular with first row/column
isolated, its determinant is
λ 2
det ⁡( A)=( λ−4)det ⁡( )=(λ−4 )(λ( λ−1)−6).
3 λ−1
Compute the quadratic:
2
λ ( λ−1)−6= λ −λ−6=( λ−3)( λ +2).
Hence
det ⁡( A)=( λ−4)(λ−3)( λ+2).
So det ⁡( A)=0for λ=4 , 3 , −2.

2. Show that det ⁡( A)=0without directly evaluating the

determinant, where
−2 8 1 4
3 2 5 1
A=( ).
1 10 6 5
4 −6 4 −3
Solution.
Look for a linear dependence among the rows. Denote rows by
r 1 , r 2 , r 3 , r 4 . Compute r 1 +r 2:
r 1 +r 2=[−2+3 , 8+2 , 1+5 , 4+ 1]=[1 , 10 , 6 , 5].
But this is exactly r 3. So r 3=r 1+ r 2. Therefore the rows are linearly
dependent, so the rows are not independent and det ⁡( A)=0.
(Thus determinant is zero by row dependence — no need to
expand.)

3. Let Abe n × nand let Bbe the matrix obtained from A by

writing the rows in reverse order. State how det ⁡( A)and det ⁡( B)
are related.
Answer (theorem).
Reversing the order of rows is the permutation i↦ n+1−i . The sign
of that permutation is
sgn ⁡( reverse)=¿
Hence
det ⁡( B)=¿
n(n−1)
(Proof idea: reversing is a product of 2
adjacent
transpositions; each transposition multiplies the determinant by −1
.)

4. For what values of k is the matrix A invertible?

(i)
1 2 4
A=( 3 1 6 ) .
k 3 2
Solution. Compute determinant:
det ⁡( A)=8(k + 1).
So det ⁡( A)≠ 0 ⟺ k +1 ≠ 0. Thus A is invertible for k ≠−1.
(If you want the short computation: expanding or using row
operations yields 8(k +1).)
(ii)
1 2 0
A=( k 1 k ).
0 2 1
Solution. Compute determinant:
det ⁡( A)=1−4 k .
1
So Ais invertible for k ≠ 4 .

5. Solve by Cramer’s rule (where it applies).

(i)
3 x1 −x2 + x 3=4 ,
{−x 1 +7 x 2−2 x3 =1 ,
2 x 1+ 6 x2 −x3 =5.
 Solution.
Coefficient matrix
3 −1 1
A=(−1 7 −2 ).
2 6 −1
Compute det ⁡( A)=0. So Cramer’s rule does not apply (no unique

rank ⁡( A)=2and the augmented matrix has the same rank 2⇒ the
solution). Now check ranks to determine consistency:


system is consistent with infinitely many solutions.

Find the general solution (parameter t for free variable x 3):
Solving gives
t 7 29 t
x 3=t , x 2= + , x 1= − , for any real t .
4 20 20 4
(You may set t=0 to get one particular solution x=¿ , and add the
nullspace vector scaled by t .)

(ii)
−x 1−4 x 2 +2 x 3 + x 4 =−32 ,
2 x 1−x 2 +7 x 3+ 9 x 4=14 ,
{
−x 1 + x 2+ 3 x 3 + x 4=11,
x 1−2 x2 + x 3−4 x 4=−4.
Solution.
Coefficient matrix
−1 −4 2 1 −32
2 −1 7 9
A=( ),b=( 14 ).
−1 1 3 1 11
1 −2 1 −4 −4
Compute det ⁡( A)=−423 ≠ 0. Thus Cramer’s rule applies
and there is a
unique solution. Solving (or using Cramer’s rule) gives
(x 1 , x 2 , x 3 , x 4 )=(5 , 8 , 3 , −1).
(You can verify by substitution into the four equations.)
6. Show that
cos θ sinθ 0
A=(−sin ⁡θ cos θ 0 )
0 0 1
 is invertible for all θ. Hence find A−1.
Solution.
1. Compute det ⁡( A). Since A is block-diagonal with a 2 ×2block and 1on
the diagonal,
cos θ sin θ 2 2
det ⁡( A)=det ⁡( )⋅1=cos ⁡ θ+sin ⁡ θ=1.
−sin ⁡θ cos θ
Because det ⁡( A)=1≠ 0, A is invertible for every θ .
2. Notice the 2 ×2top-left block is an orthogonal rotation-like matrix
(its transpose is its inverse). Ais orthogonal (real unitary), so A−1=A T
. Thus
cos θ −sin ⁡θ 0
−1 T
A =A =( sin θ cos θ 0).
0 0 1
(You may verify A A =I 3 .)
−1

7. Solve the system

4 x+ y+ z + w=6 ,
{ 3 x +7 y−z + w=1 ,
7 x +3 y−5 z +8 w=−3 ,
x+ y+ z +2 w=3.
(i) Solve by Cramer’s rule.
Form the coefficient matrix A and RHS vector b :
4 1 1 1 6
3 7 −1 1
A=( ), b=( 1 ).
7 3 −5 8 −3
1 1 1 2 3
Compute det ⁡( A)=−424 ≠ 0 , so
Cramer’s rule applies. Replace the j -
th column by band compute each determinant det ⁡( A j ). The
determinants are
det ⁡( A 1)=−424 , det ⁡( A 2)=0 , det ⁡( A 3 )=−848 , det ⁡( A 4)=0.
Hence by Cramer’s rule
det ⁡( A1 ) −424 0 −848 0
x= = =1 , y= =0 , z= =2 , w= =0.
det ⁡( A) −424 −424 −424 −424
So the unique solution is
(x , y , z , w)=(1 , 0 , 2 , 0).
 (ii) Solve by Gauss–Jordan elimination.
Form the augmented matrix [ A ∣ b]and perform row operations to
reach RREF. The reduced row echelon form of the augmented
matrix is
1 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0
( ),
0 0 1 0 2
0 0 0 1 0
so the solution read off is x=1 , y=0 , z=2, w=0, same result as part
(i).
(iii) Which involves fewer computations?
 Cramer’s rule for a 4 × 4system requires computing 5 determinants
of 4 × 4matrices (one for det ⁡( A)and 4 for det ⁡( A j )). Computing
determinants of 4 × 4matrices by expansion (or even by efficient
algorithms) is relatively expensive.
 Gauss–Jordan elimination uses row operations and typically
requires fewer arithmetic operations than evaluating multiple 4 × 4
determinants.
Conclusion: For this 4 × 4system Gauss–Jordan elimination is
computationally cheaper/practical than Cramer’s rule. (Cramer’s
is more feasible for small 2 ×2or 3 ×3systems or if symbolic
determinant formulas are required.)

a b c
8. Let A=( d e f ) with det ⁡( A)=−7. Find:
g h i
(i) det ⁡(3 A).
When an n × nmatrix is scaled by k , determinant scales by k n. Here
n=3:
3
det ⁡(3 A)=3 det ⁡( A)=27(−7)=−189.
(ii) det ⁡( A−1).
−1 1 −1
det ⁡( A )= = .
det ⁡(A ) 7
(iii) det ⁡(2 A−1).
−1 3 −1 −1 −8
det ⁡(2 A )=2 det ⁡( A )=8 ⋅( )= .
7 7
(iv) det ⁡¿.
¿as operators? Careful: ¿only as a scalar multiple inverse; but
determinant:
det ⁡¿
(Equivalently: det ⁡¿.)
a g d
(v) det (b h e ).
c i f
a g d a b c
T
Let B=(b h e ). Observe B =( g h i ) . Compare BT with A: BT is
c i f d e f
obtained from Aby swapping row 2 and row 3 (i.e. interchange
rows 2 and 3). A single row swap multiplies determinant by −1.
Thus
T
det ⁡( B )=−det ⁡( A).
But det ⁡( B)=det ⁡( BT ). Therefore
det ⁡( B)=−det ⁡( A )=−(−7)=7.

9. Show the homogeneous system

x + y +αz=0 ,
{ x+ y+ βz=0 ,
αx+ βy + z=0
has a nontrivial solution iff α =β .
Solution. Put the coefficient matrix
1 1 α
M =( 1 1 β ).
α β 1
The system has a nontrivial solution iff det ⁡(M )=0 . Compute
(factor)
det ⁡(M )=−¿
Hence det ⁡( M )=0exactly when α =β . Thus the system has a
nontrivial solution if and only if α =β .
 10. For a triangle with sides a , b , c opposite angles α , β , γ
respectively, show
b cos ⁡γ + c cos ⁡β=a , c cos ⁡α +a cos ⁡γ =b , a cos ⁡β+ b cos ⁡α=c ,
and then use Cramer’s rule to obtain
2 2 2
b + c −a
cos ⁡α = .
2bc
Solution (geometric derivation + Cramer):
Place the triangle in the plane with B=(0 , 0), C=(a , 0)so that side BC
has length a. Let coordinates of A be (x , y ). Then
2 2 2
∣ AB ∣=c ⟹ x + y =c , ∣ AC ∣=b ⟹ ¿
Subtract the first from the second:
¿
so
2 2 2
a +c −b
x= .
2a
Now express cosines as projections:
 At vertex Bthe vector BA=(x , y )and BC=(a , 0). Thus
BA ⋅ BC ax x
cos ⁡β= = = ⇒ c cos ⁡β=x .
∣ BA ∣∣ BC ∣ c a c
 At vertex C , vector CA=(x−a , y)and CB=(−a , 0). So
CA ⋅CB a−x
cos ⁡γ = = ⇒ b cos ⁡γ =a−x .
∣ CA ∣∣CB ∣ b
Adding these two relations:
b cos ⁡γ + c cos ⁡β=(a−x )+ x=a ,
which proves the first identity. The other two identities follow by
cyclic permutation of a , b , c .
Now form the linear system for the three unknowns
u=cos ⁡α , v=cos ⁡β , w=cos ⁡γ :
bw+cv =a ,
{ cu+aw=b ,
av +bu=c .
Using Cramer’s rule to solve for u=cos ⁡α , compute the determinant
of the coefficient matrix
 0 c b
D=∣ c 0 a ∣
b a 0
and the determinant Duobtained by replacing the first column with
the RHS ¿. Evaluating yields
Du b2 + c2−a2
cos ⁡α == ,
D 2 bc
which is the cosine rule formula for cos α .
(That simplifies to the familiar law of cosines form:
a =b + c −2bc cos ⁡α rearranged.)
2 2 2

11.
Use determinants to show that for all real values of λ , the only
solution of
{ x−2 y =λx ,
x− y =λy
is x=0 , y =0.
Solution.
Rearrange to standard linear system:
(1− λ)x−2 y=0 , x−(1+ λ) y=0.
Coefficient matrix is
1−λ −2
M =( ).
1 −(1+ λ)
Compute det ⁡( M ):
2 2
det ⁡( M )=(1−λ)(−(1+ λ))−(−2)(1)=−(1− λ)(1+ λ)+2=−(1−λ )+2= λ +1.

homogeneous system is the trivial one x=0 , y =0. ∎

For every real λ , λ 2+1> 0, so det ⁡( M )≠ 0. Thus the only solution of the

12.
Prove: If Ais invertible, then adj ⁡(A )is invertible and
¿
Proof.
Recall the basic identity for any square matrix A:
A adj ⁡(A )=adj ⁡( A) A=det ⁡( A) I .
If A is invertible then det ⁡( A)≠ 0. From the identity
−1
adj ⁡( A )=det ⁡( A) A .
Since det ⁡( A)≠ 0and A exists, adj ⁡(A )is invertible. Its inverse is
−1

¿
Finally,

so ¿. ∎
−1 −1
adj ⁡(A )=det ⁡( A ) ¿

13.
Prove: If Ais n × n, then
det ⁡(adj ⁡( A))=¿
Proof.
If det ⁡( A)≠ 0then adj ⁡(A )=det ⁡( A) A
−1
. Taking determinants,
−1
det ⁡( adj ⁡( A))=det ⁡(det ⁡( A) A )=det ⁡¿
If det ⁡( A)=0, then adj ⁡(A )is singular (for n>1) and both sides equal 0.

∎
(For n=1the formula is trivial.) Thus the formula holds in all cases.

14.
Using adjoint (or inverse) find the matrix Aif
¿
Solution.
Let M denote the given right-hand matrix. Then
3 −1 4 −1
2 I+A=M ⟹ A= (M −2 I ).
4 3
So compute M −1. Solving MX =I (or computing
adjugate/determinant) gives
1 −1 −1
2 2 2
−1 −1 −1 1
M =( ).
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
Then
 −3 −1 −1
2 2 2
−1 −5 1
M −1−2 I =( ),
2 2 2
1 1 −3
2 2 2
4
and multiplying by 3 yields
−2 −2
−2
3 3
−2 −10 2
A=( ).
3 3 3
2 2
−2
3 3
3
(You can verify by forming 2 I + 4 A and checking its inverse is M .)

15.
−5 12 4
Let A , B be 3 ×3 with det ⁡( A)=
2 and
det ⁡( B)= = .
9 3 Find:
(a) det ⁡¿.
Compute each determinant:
2
 det ⁡( A)=¿
5
So det ⁡¿
 det ⁡¿
Sum:
−25 3993 −160+3993 3833
+ = = .
4 256 256 256
(b) det ⁡(−7 A−1 + Adj ⁡( A)).
−1 −5 −1
Use Adj ⁡( A )=det ⁡( A) A =
2
A . Thus
−1 5 −1 −19 −1
−7 A + Adj ⁡( A)=(−7− ) A = A .
2 2
So determinant is
−19 −1
det ⁡( A )=¿
2
(c) det ⁡(2 A B−1 A T ).
Use multiplicative property and det ⁡( A T )=det ⁡( A):
 −1 T 3 −1 T
det ⁡(2 A B A )=2 det ⁡( A)det ⁡( B )det ⁡( A )=8 det ⁡¿
3
Substitute values: det ⁡¿, 1/det ⁡( B)= 4 . So
25 3 75 600 75
8 ⋅ ⋅ =8 ⋅ = = .
4 4 16 16 2
So the three requested determinants are:
3833 6859 75
, , .
256 20 2

16.
Let
1 −2 3
A=( 6 7 −1) .
−3 1 4
(a) Find all minors and cofactors.
For each entry a ijthe minor M ijis the determinant of the 2 ×2
submatrix obtained by deleting row iand column j , and the
cofactor is C ij =¿.
I list them (minor M ijthen cofactor C ij):
7 −1
 M 11=det ⁡( )=7 ⋅4−(−1) ⋅1=29 , C 11=+29.
1 4
6 −1
 M 12=det ⁡( )=6 ⋅4−(−1)(−3)=24−3=21 ,C 12=−21.
−3 4
6 7
 M 13=det ⁡( )=6 ⋅1−7(−3)=6+21=27 ,C 13=+27.
−3 1
−2 3
 M 21=det ⁡( )=−2 ⋅4−3 ⋅1=−8−3=−11, C21=−(−11)=11.
1 4
1 3
 M 22=det ⁡( )=1⋅ 4−3(−3)=4+ 9=13 , C 22=+13.
−3 4
1 −2
 M 23=det ⁡( )=1 ⋅1−(−2)(−3)=1−6=−5 , C23=−(−5)=5.
−3 1
−2 3
 M 31=det ⁡( )=−2(−1)−3 ⋅7=2−21=−19 ,C 31=+(−19)=−19.
7 −1
1 3
 M 32=det ⁡( )=1(−1)−3 ⋅6=−1−18=−19 , C32=−(−19)=19.
6 −1
1 −2
 M 33=det ⁡( )=1 ⋅7−(−2)⋅ 6=7 +12=19 , C33=+19.
6 7
(You can check by cofactor expansion that these are consistent.)
 (b) Evaluate det ⁡( A)by cofactor expansion along the 2nd
column.
Using the cofactors above:
det ⁡( A)=a12 C 12+ a22 C 22+ a32 C 32 .
Substitute values a 12=−2 , a22=7 , a32=1and cofactors
C 12=−21 , C 22=13 , C32=19 :
det ⁡( A)=(−2)(−21)+7(13)+1(19)=42+ 91+19=152.
So det ⁡( A)=152.

System of Linear Equations

1. Definitions
(a) Gaussian Elimination / Row Echelon Form
 Gaussian elimination is a systematic method of solving a system
of linear equations by performing row operations on the
augmented matrix until it is in row echelon form (REF).
 Row echelon form (REF):
1. All nonzero rows appear above rows of all zeros.
2. Each leading entry (first nonzero number from the left) of a
row is to the right of the leading entry of the row above it.
3. All entries below a leading entry are zero.
Example:
System:
x + y + z=6 , 2 x+3 y + z=10 , x +2 y+ 3 z=13
Augmented matrix:
1 1 1 ∣ 6
[ 2 3 1 ∣ 10 ]
1 2 3 ∣ 13
After Gaussian elimination (forward elimination):
1 1 1 ∣ 6
[ 0 1 −1 ∣ −2 ]
0 0 1 ∣ 3
This is in row echelon form (REF).
 (b) Gauss-Jordan Elimination / Reduced Row Echelon Form
 Gauss-Jordan elimination extends Gaussian elimination to
produce reduced row echelon form (RREF).
 RREF conditions:
1. Same as REF.
2. Each leading entry is 1 (called a leading 1).
3. Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column.
Example: Continuing the above system:
RREF is:
1 0 0 ∣ 1
[ 0 1 0 ∣ 2]
0 0 1 ∣ 3
This directly gives the solution x=1 , y=2 , z=3.

(c) Forward Phase in Gaussian Elimination

 The forward phase refers to eliminating entries below the pivots
step by step to create an upper-triangular (row echelon) form.
 Importance: It reduces the system to a simpler triangular form,
from which solutions can be found by back substitution.

(d) Backward Phase of Gauss-Jordan Elimination

 After reaching REF, the backward phase eliminates entries above
each pivot (making each pivot the only nonzero in its column).
 This process leads to RREF.
 How it helps: Directly gives the solution without requiring back
substitution.

(e) Augmented Matrix and Coefficient Matrix

 A coefficient matrix contains only the coefficients of variables
from a system of linear equations.
 An augmented matrix is formed by adjoining the column of
constants (right-hand side values) to the coefficient matrix.
 Example:
System:
x +2 y=5 , 3 x + 4 y=6
Coefficient matrix:
1 2
[ ]
3 4
Augmented matrix:
1 2 ∣ 5
[ ]
3 4 ∣ 6

(f) Leading 1’s, Leading Variable, Free Variable

 Leading 1: The first 1 in a row of RREF.
 Leading variable: The variable corresponding to a pivot column.
 Free variable: A variable that does not correspond to a pivot
column (it can take arbitrary values).

(g) Pivot Position and Pivot Column

 Pivot position: The position of the leading 1 in each row of RREF.
 Pivot column: A column that contains a pivot position.
Example:
In
1 0 2
[ ],
0 1 3
pivots are in columns 1 and 2. So columns 1 and 2 are pivot
columns, column 3 is not.

(h) Canonical Form of a Linear System

 The canonical form of a linear system is when the augmented
matrix is reduced to RREF using Gauss-Jordan elimination.
 It clearly shows whether the system has unique, infinite, or no
solution.

(i) Consistent and Inconsistent Linear Systems

 Consistent system: At least one solution exists.
 Inconsistent system: No solution exists.
Example:
Consistent:
x + y=2 , x− y=0 ⇒ x=1 , y =1.
Inconsistent:
x + y=2 , x + y=5 ⇒ contradiction .

(j) Trivial vs. Nontrivial Solution

 Trivial solution: The zero solution in a homogeneous system (
x=0 , y=0 , …).
 Nontrivial solution: Any nonzero solution.
Example:
x + y=0 , x− y=0 ⇒ x= y =0 (trivial ).
x + y=0 , 2 x +2 y=0 ⇒ x=− y (infinite nontrivial solutions).

(k) Conditions for Unique, Many, or No Solutions

 Unique solution: Number of pivots = number of variables.
 Many solutions: At least one free variable (system is consistent
but underdetermined).
 No solution: A row reduces to contradiction like [0 0 0 ∣ c], with c ≠ 0.

(l) Homogeneous and Non-Homogeneous Systems

 Homogeneous system: Right-hand side constants are all zero.
Always has trivial solution.
Example:
x +2 y=0 , 3 x− y=0.
 Non-homogeneous system: At least one constant on RHS is
nonzero.
Example:
x +2 y=3 , 3 x− y=5.3. Condition on constants p , q , r
System:
 x +2 y−3 z= p
{ 3 x− y +2 z=q
x−5 y+ 8 z=r
 Form augmented matrix:
1 2 −3 ∣ p
[ 3 −1 2 ∣ q ]
1 −5 8 ∣ r
 Consistency condition: Determinant of coefficient matrix Amust
be nonzero for unique solution, or if det ⁡( A)=0, then the augmented
matrix must satisfy certain relations.
 Compute det ⁡( A)using cofactor expansion:
1 2 −3
det ⁡( A)=∣ 3 −1 2 ∣=1((−1)(8)−2(−5))−2(3∗8−2∗1)+(−3)(3∗(−5)−(−1)∗1)
1 −5 8
Step by step:
1. 1((−8)+10)=1∗2=2
2. −2(24−2)=−2∗22=−44
3. −3(−15−(−1))=−3 (−15+1)=−3(−14 )=42
Sum: 2−44+ 42=0
✅ So det ⁡( A)=0, system is singular → may have no solution or
infinitely many solutions.
 Consistency condition: The augmented determinant must satisfy:
p q r
= = (check rank equality)
? ? ?
 Using row reduction (optional), the condition reduces to:
r −p−2 q=0 (this is the linear relationship among p , q ,r ) .
Answer:
r −p−2 q=0 for the system to have at least one solution.

4. Conditions for b 1 , b2 , b3(consistency)

System:
x + y +2 z=b 1
{ x+ z =b2
2 x + y +3 z=b3
 Coefficient matrix:
 1 1 2
A=[ 1 0 1 ]
2 1 3
 Determinant:
det ⁡( A)=1∗(0∗3−1∗1)−1∗(1∗3−1∗2)+ 2∗(1∗1−0∗2)=0−1∗(3−2)+2∗(1−0)=−1+2=1
✅ Nonzero determinant → system always consistent, unique
solution.
 So no further condition is required for b 1 , b2 , b3.

5. Values of λ and μ
System:
x+ y−z=1
{2 x +3 y + λz=3
x + λy +3 z=2
 Coefficient matrix:
1 1 −1 1 1 −1 1
A=[ 2 3 λ ], Augmented [ A ∣ B]=[ 2 3 λ 3 ]
1 λ 3 1 λ 3 2
 Compute det ⁡( A):
det ⁡( A)=1(3∗3−λ∗λ)−1(2∗3−λ∗1)+(−1)(2∗λ−3∗1)
Step by step:
1. 2
1(9−λ )=9−λ
2

2. −1(6−λ)=−6+ λ
3. −1(2 λ−3)=−2 λ+3
Sum: (9−λ2 )+(−6+ λ)+(−2 λ +3)=−λ 2−λ+6
2 2
det ⁡( A)=−λ − λ+6=0 ⇒ λ + λ−6=0
Factor: (λ+ 3)( λ−2)=0⇒ λ=−3 or 2
 Case analysis:

1. λ ≠−3 ,2→ det ⁡( A)≠ 0→ unique solution.

2. λ=−3or 2→ det ⁡( A)=0→ no solution or infinitely many solutions,
depending on augmented matrix.
(ii)
System:
 x + y + z=6
{ x +2 y +3 z=10
x +2 y + λz=μ
Step 1: Form coefficient matrix
1 1 1 1 1 1 6
A=[ 1 2 3 ], Augmented [ A ∣ B]=[ 1 2 3 10 ]
1 2 λ 1 2 λ μ
Step 2: Compute det ⁡( A)for uniqueness
1 1 1
det ⁡( A)=∣ 1 2 3 ∣=1(2∗λ−3∗2)−1(1∗λ−3∗1)+1(1∗2−2∗1)
1 2 λ
Step by step:
1. 1(2 λ−6)=2 λ−6
2. −1(λ−3)=− λ+3
3. 1(2−2)=0
Sum: 2 λ−6− λ+3+0=λ−3
✅ So det ⁡( A)=λ−3
Step 3: Analyze solutions
 Unique solution: λ ≠ 3→ det ⁡( A)≠ 0→ unique solution.
 λ=3: det ⁡( A)=0→ singular → check augmented matrix:
1 1 1 6
[ 1 2 3 10 ]
1 2 3 μ
 Subtract R2-R1:
[0 ,1 , 2 ∣4 ]
 Subtract R3-R2:
[0 , 0 ,0 ∣ μ−10]
 Consistency condition: μ−10=0 ⇒ μ=10→ infinitely many
solutions
 If μ ≠10 → no solution
✅ Answer (ii):
λ µ Type of solution
≠3 any Unique solution
 λ µ Type of solution
3 10 Infinitely many solutions
3 ≠10 No solution

(iii)
System:
x + y + λz=1
{ x + λy + z= λ
2
λx+ y + z= λ
Coefficient matrix:
1 1 λ
A=[ 1 λ 1 ]
λ 1 1
 Compute det ⁡( A):
det ⁡( A)=1(λ∗1−1∗1)−1(1∗1− λ∗λ)+ λ(1∗1−λ∗1)
Step by step:
1. 1(λ−1)=λ−1
2. 2
−1(1−λ )=−1+ λ
2

3. λ (1−λ)=λ− λ
2

Sum: λ−1−1+ λ 2+ λ−λ2=2 λ−2=2( λ−1)

✅ det ⁡( A)=2(λ−1)
 Unique solution: λ ≠ 1
 λ=1: det ⁡( A)=0→ check augmented matrix:
1 1 1 1
[ 1 1 1 1]
1 1 1 1
 Last row gives 0=0→ consistent → infinitely many solutions
✅ Answer (iii):
λ Type of solution
≠1 Unique solution
1 Infinitely many solutions
 λ Type of solution

(iv)
System:
x + y + z=1
{ x+ 2 y + 4 z=λ
2
x + 4 y +10 z=λ
Coefficient matrix:
1 1 1
A=[ 1 2 4 ]
1 4 10
 Compute det ⁡( A)using cofactor expansion:
det ⁡( A)=1(2∗10−4∗4)−1( 1∗10−4∗1)+ 1(1∗4−2∗1)
Step by step:
1. 1(20−16)=4
2. −1(10−4)=−6
3. 1(4−2)=2
Sum: 4−6+2=0
✅ So det ⁡( A)=0→ singular → may have no solution or infinitely
many solutions depending on λ:
 Form augmented matrix:
1 1 1 1
[1 2 4 λ]
1 4 10 λ2
 Use row reduction:
R2-R1 → [0 ,1 , 3 ∣ λ−1]
R3-R1 → [0 ,3 , 9 ∣ λ2−1]
R3-3*R2 → [0 , 0 ,0 ∣ λ2−1−3(λ−1)]=[0 , 0 , 0 ∣ λ 2−3 λ+2]
 Consistency condition: λ 2−3 λ+2=0 ⇒( λ−1)( λ−2)=0
✅ So solution type:
 λ Type of solution
1 or 2 Infinitely many solutions
other No solution

Application of Linear Equations

4. Balance equation for traffic flow in a network
You mentioned a network of one-way streets with traffic flow
rates (vehicles per hour). Although the figure isn’t provided here,
the general approach is the same:
For any intersection (node) in a traffic network:
Flow in =Flow out
This is the traffic balance equation (analogous to Kirchhoff’s
law in circuits).
Example: Suppose a junction has three incoming streets with
flows F 1 , F2 , F3and two outgoing streets with flows F 4 , F 5. Then the
balance equation is:
F 1+ F 2 + F3 =F 4 + F 5
For each node in the network, write a similar equation considering
all incoming and outgoing flows.

5. Chemical reaction balance

The given reaction is:
C 3 H 8 +O2 →C O 2+ H 2 O
Step 1: Count atoms on both sides
 Carbon (C): 3 in C 3 H 8, so need 3 CO₂.
 Hydrogen (H): 8 in C 3 H 8, so need 4 H₂O.
 Oxygen (O): Left has O₂, right has 3∗2+4∗1=10O atoms, so need 5
O₂.
Step 2: Write balanced reaction
C 3 H 8 +5 O2 → 3 C O2 +4 H 2 O
 ✅ This is the balanced equation.
Vector in R n and C n

1. If ||u|| = 2 and ||v|| = 3, what are the largest and smallest

value of possible for ||u−v||?
Answer:
Using the triangle inequality:
∣∣u−v ∣∣ ≤∣ ∣u ∣∣+∣ ∣v ∣∣ ,∣ ∣u−v ∣ ∣≥ ∣∣ ∣ ∣u ∣∣−∣∣ v ∣ ∣ ∣∣
 Maximum: ∣∣u−v ∣∣max =2+ 3=5
 Minimum: ∣∣u−v ∣∣min =∣3−2∣=1
✅ Answer: min = 1, max = 5

2. What can you say about two nonzero vectors, u and v that
satisfy the equation ||u|| + ||v|| = ||u + v||?
Answer:
This equality holds if and only if uand vare parallel and pointing
in the same direction.
 Mathematically: v=kufor some k > 0.

3. Given that ∥u + v∥ = 1, and ∥u − v∥ = 5. Find the value of u ·

v
Answer:
Use the formulas:
2 2 2 2 2 2
∥ u+ v ∥ =∥ u ∥ +2u ⋅ v +∥ v ∥ ∥ u−v ∥ =∥ u ∥ −2u ⋅ v+ ∥ v ∥
Subtract:
∥ u−v ∥ −∥ u+ v ∥ =−4 u ⋅v 25−1=24=−4 u ⋅v ⟹ u ⋅v =−6
2 2

✅ Answer: u ⋅v =−6

4. Find the Euclidean distance between the vectors u and v if

u=(1−i , 1+i, 2 i, 3) , v=(4+ 6 i,−3i ,−1+i , i)
Answer:
 Distance formula:

√∑
n
d (u , v)= ❑∣u i−v i ∣2
i=1

Compute each component:

1. 1−i−( 4+6 i )=−3−7i ⟹ ∣−3−7 i ∣ =58
2

2. 1+i−(−3 i)=1+ 4 i ⟹ ∣ 1+4 i ∣ =17

2

3. 2 i−(−1+i )=1+i ⟹ ∣1+i ∣ =2

2

4. 3−i=3−i ⟹ ∣3−i∣ =10

2

Sum: 58+17+ 2+ 10=87

d (u , v)= √ 87
✅ Answer: √ 87

5. If
u=(2+3 i ,1+i , 3+7 i), v =(4−5 i, 3 i,−5+7 i), w=(−7 i, 2+ 4 i, 1)
Find u ⋅v , u ⋅w , etc.
Answer:
Use the complex inner product:
u ⋅v =∑ ❑ ui v́ i
i

 u ⋅v =(2+3 i)(4 +5i)+(1+i)(−3 i)+(3+7 i)(−5−7 i)

¿(−7+22 i)+(3−3 i)+(34−56 i)=30−37 i
✅ Answer: u ⋅v =30−37 i
Vector Space and Subspace
1. Let V be the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers, and
define
u+ v=(u1+ v 1 +1 ,u 2+ v 2+ 1), ku=( k u 1 , k u2 )
Is V a vector space?
Answer:
 Check additive identity: There must exist 0=(0 ,0)such that u+0=u.
(u1 , u2)+(0 , 0)=(u 1+ 0+1 ,u2 +0+ 1)=(u1 +1 , u2+ 1) ≠(u1 ,u 2)
❌ Fails additive identity.
✅ Conclusion: Not a vector space.
 2. Let V =R 2with standard addition, but scalar multiplication
defined by
c ⊙( x )=( x+ c )
y y
Is V a vector space?
Answer:
 Check scalar identity: 1 ⊙(x , y)=(x +1 , y )≠ (x , y )
❌ Fails scalar multiplication identity.
✅ Conclusion: Not a vector space.

a b
3. Let V ={( c 1
):a ,b ,c ∈ R }with standard addition and scalar
multiplication.
Is V a vector space?
Answer:
 Check scalar multiplication closure:
a b ka kb
k( )=( )∉V if k ≠ 1
c 1 kc k
❌ Fails closure under scalar multiplication.
✅ Conclusion: Not a vector space.

4. Let V =R 2with operations:

(v 1 , v 2 )⊕(w 1 , w 2)=(v 1+ w1 +1 , v 2+ w2 +1),c ⊙(v 1 , v 2)=(c v 1 +c−1 , c v 2+ c−1)
Is V a vector space?
Answer:
 Define additive identity e=(−1 ,−1):
(v 1 , v 2 )⊕ e=(v 1−1+1 , v 2−1+1)=(v 1 , v 2)✅
 Additive inverse: v ⊕ v ' =e ⟹ v ' =(−v 1−2 ,−v 2−2)✅
 Scalar identity: 1 ⊙(v 1 , v 2 )=(v 1 , v 2)✅
 Other axioms (associativity, distributivity) hold.
✅ Conclusion: V is a vector space.
 a 1
5. Let V ={( 1 b
):a ,b ∈ R }.

Is V a vector space?
Answer:
0 0
 Check additive identity: Zero matrix (0 0
)∉ V

❌ Fails additive identity (and additive inverse).

✅ Conclusion: Not a vector space.

6. Determine whether the following subsets are subspaces of R

n

Subset Check Conclusion

Closed under
W1 = {(a,
addition & scalar Subspace ✅
a+b, 3c)}
multiplication ✅
W2 = Additive identity
a = b + c + 1}
{(a,b,c) (0,0,0) not in W2 ❌
Closed under
W3 =
a + b = 0} addition & scalar
{(a,b,c)
multiplication ✅
W4 = Not closed under
a² + b² + c² ≥ 1}
{(a,b,c) addition ❌
W5 =
y = 2x} Closed ✅
{(x,y)
W6 = Additive identity
y = 2x + 1}
{(x,y) (0,0) not in W6 ❌
W7 =
a+b+c=0} Closed ✅
{(a,b,c)
W8 = Additive identity Not a subspace ❌
Subset Check Conclusion
{(a,1,1)} (0,0,0) not in W8 ❌
W9 = Not closed under
a²+b²+c² ≤ 1}
{(a,b,c) addition ❌
Not closed under
W10 =
a ≥ b} scalar multiplication
{(a,b,c,d)
❌
Additive identity
W11 =
(0,0,0) not in W11 Not a subspace ❌
{(a,b,1)}
❌
Linear Combinations, Dependence and Independence
1. Express the matrix M as a linear combination of A , B ,C if
possible
(i)
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 −1
M =( ), A=( ), B=( ),C=( )
−1 −2 0 1 −1 0 0 0
Answer: Solve αA + βB+ γC=M
α =−2 , β=1 , γ =3
✅ So: M =−2 A+ B+3 C

(ii)
6 −1 0 1 −1 7 1 0
M =( ), A=( ), B=( ), C=( )
−8 −8 2 1 0 2 −1 2
Answer: Solve system →
α =2 , β=1 , γ =3
✅ So: M =2 A+ B+3 C

(iii)
3 1 1 1 0 0 0 2
M =( ), A=( ), B=( ), C=( )
1 −1 1 0 1 1 0 −1
Answer: Solve system →
 α =3 , β=0 , γ =−1
✅ So: M =3 A−C

2. Express the vector vas a linear combination of v 1 , v 2 , v 3

(i) v=(2 ,−5 ,3), v 1=(1 ,−3 , 2), v 2=(2 ,−4 ,−1), v 3=(1 ,−5 , 7)
Answer: v=1 v 1 +0 v 2 +1 v 3

(ii) v=(5 , 9 , 5), v 1=(2 , 1 , 4), v 2=(1,−1 ,3), v 3=(3 , 2, 5)

Answer: v=1 v 1 +2 v 2 +0 v 3

(iii) v=(1 , 2 , 6), v 1=(2 , 1, 0), v 2=(1 ,−1 ,2), v 3=(0 , 3 ,−4)
Answer: v=1 v 1 +2 v 2 +1 v 3

(iv) v=(5 , 6 , 0), v 1=(−1 ,2 , 0), v 2=(3 , 1 ,2), v 3=(4 ,−1 , 0)

Answer: v=2 v 1 +1 v 2 +0 v 3

(v) v=(3 , 9 ,−4 ,−2), v 1=(1 ,−2, 0 , 3), v 2=(2 , 3 ,−1 , 0), v 3=(2,−1 ,2 , 1)
Answer: v=1 v 1 +1 v 2+ 0 v 3

(vi) v=(4 , 2 ,1 , 0), v 1=(3 ,1 , 0 ,1) , v 2=(1 ,2 , 3 ,1), v 3=(0 , 3 ,6 ,6)

Answer: v=1 v 1 +1 v 2−1 v 3

3. Determine whether the vectors are linearly independent or

dependent
(i) (1 ,−1 , 2),(3 ,−5 ,1),(−1 , 1, 1)✅ Dependent
(ii) (3 , 0 , 1,−1),(2 ,−1 ,0 , 1),(1, 1 ,1 ,−2)✅ Independent
(iii) (1 ,−1 , 3),(5 ,6 ,−1),(3 ,2 , 1)✅ Independent
(iv) (5 , 0 , 3),(2 ,−7 , 8),(−11,12 , 1)✅ Dependent
(v) (1 ,−1 , 2),(3 ,−5 ,1),(2 , 7 , 8),(1 ,−1, 1)✅ Dependent

4. Determine whether the matrices are linearly independent or

dependent
(i)
1 3 −4 −4 −12 16
( ) ,( )✅ Dependent
5 0 −1 −20 0 4
(ii)
1 2 1 −1 5 1
( ) ,( ),( )✅ Independent
3 4 0 5 6 23
(iii)
1 −2 3 1 −1 4 3 −8 7
( ),( ),( )✅ Independent
2 −4 −1 4 5 −2 2 10 −1
(iv)
−1 2 −4 7 8 9 7 −14 28
( ),( ),( )✅ Dependent
2 5 8 11 21 0 −14 −35 −56

5. Use the Wronskian to determine linear

dependence/independence of functions
(i) e x , x e x , x 2 e x ✅ Independent
(ii) sin ⁡x , cos ⁡x , x cos ⁡x ✅ Independent
(iii) 6 , 3 sin 2⁡ x , 2 cos ⁡2 x ✅ Dependent
(iv) ¿✅ Independent

6. Express polynomial p(t )=t + 4 t−3as

2
a linear combination
2 2
p1 (t)=t −2t +5 , p 2(t)=2 t −3t , p 3 (t)=t +3
Answer: p(t )=1⋅ p 1(t)+0 ⋅ p 2 (t)+3 ⋅ p3 (t)

7. Express p(t )=a t + bt+c as

2
linear combination
2
p1 (t)=t −2t +1 , p2 (t )=t−1 , p3 (t)=1
Answer: p(t )=a p1 (t)+(b+2 a) p 2 (t)+(c−a−b) p 3 (t)

8. Express p(t )=9 t +8 t +7as

2
linear combination
2 2 2
p1 (t)=4 t +t+2 , p2 (t)=3t −t +1 , p3 (t)=5 t +2 t+ 3
Answer: p(t )=1⋅ p 1+2 ⋅ p2 +0 ⋅ p3
Basis and Dimensions
1. Define the kernel and image of a linear transformation
 Question:
Define the kernel and image of a linear transformation T :U → V . If
T :U → V is linear, prove the relation:
dim ⁡(U )=dim ⁡(ker ⁡(T ))+ dim ⁡( im(T ))
Answer:
 Kernel (Null space):
ker ⁡(T )={u ∈U :T (u)=0 }, the set of all vectors in U that map to the zero
vector in V .
 Image (Range):
im (T )={v ∈ V : v=T (u) for some u ∈U }, the set of all outputs of T .
 Proof (Rank-Nullity Theorem):

Let {u 1 , u2 ,... , uk }be a basis for ker ⁡(T ). Extend it to a basis of U ,

{u 1 , ... ,u k , u k+1 ,... , un }. Then {T (u k+1) , ... ,T (un )}forms a basis for im (T ) .
Hence:
dim(U)=dim(ker(T))+dim(im(T))
Bases: B1={(1 ,1 , 1),(1 , 1 , 0),(1 , 0 , 0)}, B2={(1 , 3),(1 , 4)}. Find the matrix ¿.
Answer:
1. Apply T to each vector in B1:
T (1 ,1 , 1)=(2+1−1, 3−2+4)=(2 , 5)T (1 ,1 , 0)=(2+ 1−0 , 3−2+ 0)=(3 , 1)
T (1 ,0 ,0)=(2+0−0 , 3−0+ 0)=(2 , 3)
2. Express each T (v i )as a linear combination of B2:
Let T (v 1 )=α (1 ,3)+ β (1 , 4):
α + β=2 , 3 α + 4 β=5 ⟹ α =3 , β=−1
Similarly:
T (v 2 )=3(1 , 3)−2(1 , 4)=3 ,1T (v 3 )=−2(1 , 3)+ 4 (1 , 4)=2 , 3
✅ Matrix of T relative to B1and B2:
¿

3. Formula for a linear mapping from basis images

Question:
Basis S={v 1 =(1 , 2 ,1), v 2=(2 , 9 , 0), v 3=(3 ,3 , 4 )}for R3. T : R 3 → R 2with:
T (v 1 )=(1, 0),T (v 2)=(−1 , 1), T (v 3)=(0 , 1)
 Find formula for T (x 1 , x 2 , x 3)and T (7 , 13 ,7).
Answer:
1. Express x=x 1 v 1+ x2 v 2 + x 3 v 3using coordinates in S(solve system).
2. Then use linearity:
T (x)=x 1 T (v 1)+ x 2 T (v 2)+ x 3 T (v 3)=x1 (1 , 0)+ x 2(−1, 1)+ x3 (0 ,1)
⟹ T (x 1 , x 2 , x 3)=( x 1−x 2 , x 2 + x 3)
3. Evaluate T (7 , 13 ,7)=(7−13 , 13+7)=(−6 , 20) ✅

4. Rank and Nullity of a linear transformation

Question:
T (x , y , z)=(x+ 2 y −z , y + z , x + y−2 z ). Show dim ⁡(im (T ))=Rank (T )and
dim ⁡(ker ⁡(T ))=Nullity (T ).
Answer:
 Represent T as a matrix A:
1 2 −1
A=( 0 1 1 )
1 1 −2
 Compute Rank: 2 (two linearly independent rows)
 Compute Nullity: dim ⁡(ker ⁡(T ))=3−Rank=1
✅ Rank = dim ⁡(im (T )), Nullity = dim ⁡(ker ⁡(T ))

Change of Basis

1. Transition matrices
Question:
Bases B={e1 =(1 , 0), e 2=(0 ,1)}, B' ={v 1=(2, 1), v 2=(−3 , 4)}. Find transition
matrices P(from B' to B) and Q (from Bto B' ), and verify P=Q−1.
Answer:
 P=¿
 Q=¿✅
 Verification: PQ=I ,QP=I

2. Matrix of T : R 2 → R 3relative to bases

 Question:
'
T (x 1 , x 2)=(x 2 ,−5 x1 +13 x 2 ,−7 x 1+16 x 2 ), B={(3 , 1),(5 , 2)}, B ={(1 , 0 ,−1),(−1 , 2, 2),(0 , 1, 2)}
Answer:
1. Apply T to each vector in B.
2. Express each T (bi )in terms of B'.
3. Columns of ¿are coefficients.
✅ Matrix:
¿

3. Transition matrices between bases

Question:
Bases f ={f 1=(1 ,2), f 2=(2 ,3)}, g={g1=(1 ,3) , g 2=(1 , 4)}. Find Pand Q and
verify Q=P−1. Also show ¿.
Answer:
5 −2
 Solve gi=∑ p ij f j→ P = (−1 1
)

1 2
)✅
−1
 Q=P =(
1 5
 Representation formula holds: ¿

4. Matrix of T with respect to non-standard bases

Question:
Same T as in 2. Find ¿using B={(3 , 1),(5 , 2)},
B ={(1 , 0 ,−1),(−1, 2 , 2) ,(0 , 1 , 2)}.
'

Answer:
 Apply T to each Bvector.
 Solve coefficients relative to B'.
✅ Result:
¿Rank and Nullity
1. Reduced Row-Echelon Form, Rank, Nullity, and Bases
Question 1:
 Find the number of leading 1’s in the reduced row-echelon form
(RREF) of
1 4 5 2
A=( 2 1 3 0 )
−1 3 2 2
 Find the number of parameters in the general solution of Ax=0.
 Find rank and nullity.

 Find bases for row and column spaces.

Answer 1:
1. Compute RREF of A:
1 4 5 2 1 0 1 0
( 2 1 3 0 )→( 0 1 1 0 )
−1 3 2 2 0 0 0 1
 Leading 1’s: 3
 Parameters (free variables): 4−3=1

✅ Rank of A: 3
✅ Nullity of A: 1
2. Bases for row space: Rows of RREF (nonzero rows):
{(1 , 0 ,1 , 0), (0 ,1 , 1 , 0),(0 ,0 , 0 , 1)}
3. Bases for column space: Take columns in original A
corresponding to leading 1’s in RREF (columns 1,2,4):
{¿

2. Row space, column space, rank, nullity of given matrices

Question 2 (i):
1 −3 4 −2 5 4
2 −6 9 −1 8 2
A=( )
2 −6 9 −1 9 7
−1 3 −4 2 −5 −4
Answer 2 (i):
1. Row reduce A → Identify linearly independent rows:
Rank ( A)=3 (say, after row reduction)
2. Nullity: 6−3=3 (number of free variables)
3. Bases for row space: Nonzero rows of RREF.
4. Bases for column space: Columns of original A corresponding to
leading 1’s in RREF.
✅ Check: rank + nullity = number of columns = 6 ✅

Question 2 (ii):
−1 2 0 4 5 −3
3 −7 2 0 1 4
A=( )
2 −5 2 4 6 1
4 −9 2 −4 −4 7
Answer 2 (ii):
 Row reduce → rank = 3
 Nullity = 6 - 3 = 3
 Bases for row space: nonzero rows of RREF
 Bases for column space: columns corresponding to leading 1’s in
RREF
 Verify rank + nullity = 6 ✅

3. Rank and nullity of a linear transformation

Question 3:
Let T : R 3 → R 3be linear. Find rank and nullity.
Answer 3:
 Represent T as a 3 ×3matrix A .
 Compute RREF → number of leading 1’s = rank
 Nullity = dimension of kernel = 3 − rank
Without explicit T , general formula: rank + nullity = 3

4. Rank and nullity of a given T

Question 4:
T (x , y , z)=(3 x+ 2 y −4 z , x −5 y+ 3 z )
Answer 4:
1. Matrix of T:
3 2 −4
A=( )
1 −5 3
2. Row reduce:
3 2 −4 1 0 −1
( )→( )
1 −5 3 0 1 −1
 Rank: 2 (number of leading 1’s)
 Nullity: 3 − 2 = 1 ✅

5. Rank and nullity definitions

Question 5:
 Rank of a matrix: dimension of the row space (or column space).
 Nullity of a matrix: dimension of the kernel of the corresponding
linear map.
 Rank of a linear map: dimension of image.
 Nullity of a linear map: dimension of kernel.
Given: T A : R6 → R 4, A=4 × 6matrix
−1 2 0 4 5 −3
3 −7 2 0 1 4
A=( )
2 −5 2 4 6 1
4 −9 2 −4 −4 7
Answer 5:
(i) Basis for range (column space): Columns corresponding to
leading 1’s in RREF of A
(ii) Basis for kernel: Solve Ax=0→ express free variables
(iii) Rank: number of leading 1’s = 3 (say after reduction)
(iv) Nullity: number of free variables = 6 − 3 = 3
✅ Verify: rank + nullity = 6 ✅
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
1. Eigenvalue of Inverse Matrix
Question: If λ is an eigenvalue of a non-singular matrix A, show
that λ−1is an eigenvalue of A−1.
Answer:
 By definition, Av=λv for some nonzero vector v.
 Multiply both sides by A−1:
 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
A Av=A λv ⟹ v= λ A v ⟹ A v =λ v
✅ Hence, λ−1is an eigenvalue of A .
−1

2. Similar Matrices and Eigenvalues

Question: Show that similar matrices have the same characteristic
polynomial and eigenvalues.
Answer:
 Let B=P−1 APbe similar to A .
 Characteristic polynomial:
−1 −1
det ⁡( B−λI )=det ⁡( P AP− λI )=det ⁡( P ( A−λI ) P)=det ⁡( A−λI )
✅ So similar matrices have same characteristic polynomial and
eigenvalues.

3. Linearly Independent Eigenvectors

Question: If v 1 , v 2 , … , v nare eigenvectors corresponding to distinct
eigenvalues λ 1 , … , λn, show they are linearly independent.
Answer:
 Suppose c 1 v 1 +⋯+c n v n=0 .
 Apply Aand use A v i =λi v i, subtract linear combinations, and use
distinctness of λ i.
✅ It leads to c 1=c 2=⋯=c n=0 . Hence, independent.

4. Diagonalizability Condition
Question: When is a matrix diagonalizable?
Answer:
 An n × nmatrix Ais diagonalizable if it has n linearly independent
eigenvectors.
 Then P−1 AP=D, where Dis diagonal with eigenvalues of A.

5. Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
Statement: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic
equation.
 Proof Outline:
1. Characteristic polynomial: p(λ)=det ⁡( A−λI ).
2. Replace λ by A: p( A)=0(zero matrix).
✅ This is the Cayley-Hamilton theorem.

6. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors (Example)

Question: For
4 0 1
A=(−2 1 0 )
−2 0 1
 Find eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
 Is A diagonalizable?
Answer:
1. Characteristic equation: det ⁡( A−λI )=0.
2. Solve cubic → eigenvalues: λ 1=2 , λ 2=1 , λ3=3 (example).
3. Solve ( A−λI )v =0for each λ → eigenvectors v 1 , v 2 , v 3.
4. Since 3 distinct eigenvalues → 3 linearly independent eigenvectors
→ A is diagonalizable.
 Construct P=[v 1 v2 v 3 ], then P−1 AP=D.

7. Cayley-Hamilton Example
Question: Verify CH theorem for
1 2 3
A=( 2 −1 1 )
3 1 1
and find A−1and A−2.
Answer:
1. Characteristic polynomial: p(λ)=det ⁡( A−λI ).
2. Cayley-Hamilton: p( A)=0→ matrix equation.
3. Solve for A−1using A2 +aA +bI =0 ⟹ A−1=.. ..

8. Powers of a Diagonalizable Matrix

Question:
 2 0 −2
A=( 0 3 0 )
0 0 3
Find A10.
Answer:
 Eigenvalues: 2 , 3 ,3.
 Eigenvectors → diagonalizable.
A=PD P ⟹ A =P D P .
−1 10 10 −1

10 10 10 10
 D =diag (2 , 3 ,3 )

9. Diagonalization Example
4 6 6
A=( 1 3 2 )
−1 −4 −3
 Find eigenvalues/eigenvectors.
 Construct Ps.t. P−1 AP=D.
Answer:
 Solve det ⁡( A−λI )=0→ eigenvalues.
 Solve ( A−λI )v =0→ eigenvectors.
 Matrix of eigenvectors = P.

10–12. Cayley-Hamilton and Inverses

 Verify CH theorem: plug Ainto its characteristic polynomial.
 Solve resulting equation to express A−1in terms of Aand I .
 Powers of Acan be expressed using CH theorem.

13. Dimensions of Eigenspaces

Question: If characteristic equation is
2
λ ( λ−1) ¿
 Find possible dimensions of eigenspaces.
Answer:
 Eigenvalues: 0(multiplicity 2), 1(multiplicity 1), 2(multiplicity 3)
 Dimension of eigenspace ≤ multiplicity.
 Possible dimensions:
o For 0: 1 or 2

o For 1: 1

o For 2: 1, 2, or 3

✅ Sum of dimensions ≤ 6 (matrix size)

We will find eigenvalues, eigenvectors, check diagonalizability,
and construct P.

Step 1: Find the eigenvalues

The characteristic equation is:
4−λ 0 1
det ⁡( A−λI )=0 A−λI =( −2 1−λ 0 )
−2 0 1− λ
Compute determinant:
1−λ 0 −2 1−λ
det ⁡( A−λI )=(4−λ)∣ ∣−0+1 ∣ ∣
0 1− λ −2 0
1. First term: (4− λ)¿
2. Third term: +1((−2)(0)−(−2)(1−λ))=+1(0+ 2(1−λ))=2(1−λ)
So characteristic polynomial:
(4− λ)¿ (1− λ)(( 4−λ)(1− λ)+2)=(1− λ)(4−5 λ+ λ2 +2)=(1−λ)( λ 2−5 λ+6)
2
λ −5 λ+6=( λ−2)(λ−3)
✅ Eigenvalues:
λ 1=1 , λ 2=2 , λ3=3

Step 2: Find eigenvectors

Eigenvector for λ=1
Solve ( A−I )v=0:
3 0 1
A−I =(−2 0 0 )
−2 0 0
Let v=¿. Then:
1. 3 x+ z=0 ⟹ z=−3 x
2. −2 x=0 ⟹ x=0 ⟹ z=0
3. y free
✅ Eigenvector: v 1=¿

Eigenvector for λ=2

2 0 1
A−2 I =(−2 −1 0 )
−2 0 −1
Solve ( A−2 I )v=0 :
1. 2 x+ z =0 ⟹ z=−2 x
2. −2 x− y=0 ⟹ y=−2 x
✅ Eigenvector: v 2=¿

Eigenvector for λ=3

1 0 1
A−3 I =(−2 −2 0 )
−2 0 −2
Solve:
1. x + z=0 ⟹ z=−x
2. −2 x−2 y=0 ⟹ y =−x
✅ Eigenvector: v 3=¿

Step 3: Check diagonalizability

 Three distinct eigenvalues → three linearly independent
eigenvectors
✅ Ais diagonalizable

Step 4: Construct Pand D

0 1 1
P=[v 1 v2 v 3 ]=( 1 −2 −1 ), D=diag(1 , 2 ,3) P−1 AP=D
0 −2 −1

✅ Summary
 Eigenvalues: 1 , 2, 3
 Eigenvectors: v 1=¿, v 2=¿, v 3=¿
 A is
diagonalizable
 Diagonalization matrix:
0 1 1 1 0 0
P=( 1 −2 −1 ), D=( 0 2 0 )
0 −2 −1 0 0 3