GEOMETRIC DESIGNS

What is Geometry?
The word "geometry" comes from two Greek words: "geo," meaning "Earth," and
"metron," meaning "measure." Geometry is a branch of mathematics that studies the
shapes, angles, dimensions, and sizes of objects we see in our daily lives.
Geometry has applications in various fields, including:
• Physics
• Medicine
• Geology
• Mechanical drawing
• Astronomy
• Art and design
Around 350 BC, Euclid of Alexandria wrote "The Elements," which compiled all the known
concepts of geometry at that time.

Euclidean Geometry
Euclidean Geometry, also known as Parabolic Geometry, is a system of geometry that
follows a set of propositions based on Euclid's Five Postulates. A postulate is a statement
that is assumed to be true without needing proof.

Euclid's Five Postulates:

1. A straight line may be drawn from any one point to any other point.
2. A terminated line can be produced indefinitely (extended infinitely in a straight line).
3. A circle can be drawn with any center and any radius.
4. All right angles are equal to one another.
5. If a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior angles on the same
side of it taken together less than two right angles, then the two straight lines, if
produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which the sum of angles is less than
two right angles.

Two Types of Euclidean Geometry

1. Plane Geometry: This is the study of figures on a two-dimensional surface, or a
plane. It deals with flat objects like triangles and lines, which can be drawn on a
flat piece of paper.
2. Solid Geometry: This is the study of figures in a three-dimensional Euclidean
space. It includes measuring the volumes of various three-dimensional figures
such as pyramids, cylinders, cones, spheres, and prisms.

Basic Geometric Terms

• Point: A location in space that has no magnitude or size. Points are named with a
capital letter (e.g., Point A, Point L, Point F).

FF
A
A
L
 Example: The name of the points are point A, point L, and point F.
• Line: Extends infinitely in opposite directions and has length without width. Two
points define a unique line. A line can be named with a lowercase letter or by two
points on the line.
Q g
P

Example: The name of the line is line g or line PQ. It can be written also as ⃡𝑃𝑄 or
⃡ .
𝑄𝑃

• Ray: Starts at one point and extends infinitely in one direction. It has a measure
(its length). A ray is named by its endpoint and any other point on the line.

Example: It can be labeled as 𝐶𝐷 or 𝐷𝐶 .

• Line Segment: A part of a line that includes two endpoints and all points between
them. A line segment has a measure (its length). It is named by its endpoints (e.g.,
AB or BA). B

Example: It can be named as ̅̅̅̅

𝐴𝐵 or ̅̅̅̅
𝐵𝐴.

• Plane: A flat surface with no thickness and no boundaries. A plane can be

represented by three points that do not lie on the same line, or it can be named by
a capital letter (e.g., plane ABC or plane M).

A C
B
M
 Example: This can be labeled as plane ABC or plane M.

Types of Lines in a Plane

• Intersecting lines: Two lines that cross at one point in a plane.
• Parallel lines: Two or more lines in a plane that never intersect. The distance
between parallel lines is equal at all points.
• Perpendicular lines: Two or more lines that intersect at a 90-degree angle.
• Concurrent lines: Three or more lines passing through the same point.

B
n E l
A C F
D m
o
Examples:

✓ Lines n and m are intersecting lines.

✓ Line l is parallel to line m.
✓ Line o is perpendicular to lines l and m.
✓ Lines l, n, and o are concurrent lines.

Recognizing and Analyzing Geometric Shapes

A geometric shape is generally defined by a set of points and lines connected to form a
closed figure. It can also be defined as a figure or area enclosed by a boundary created
by combining specific amounts of curves, points, and lines.

There are two main types of geometric shapes:

• Two-dimensional (2D) geometric shapes: These are closed figures made up of
points joined by lines. Examples include triangles, quadrilaterals, other polygons,
and closed conic figures like circles and ellipses.
• Three-dimensional (3D) geometric shapes: These are represented by lines
joining sets of points and plane surfaces joining the lines. Polyhedrons are
common three-dimensional shapes like cubes, pyramids, cylinders, and cones.
A polyhedron is a three-dimensional geometric shape where faces are "glued" together
at the edges to form a volume with no gaps, openings, or overlaps.

Common Two-Dimensional Geometric Shapes (2-D)

Name of Shapes Figure Description and Properties

• The sum of its angles is 180°
(angle-sum property).
• The sum of the lengths of any
two sides is greater than the
length of the third side.
• The difference between the
lengths of any two sides is
Triangle
less than the length of the
third side.
• The side opposite the largest
angle is the longest side, and
the side opposite the smallest
angle is the shortest side.

Quadrilateral: A polygon with four edges (sides) and four vertices (corners).
• A quadrilateral with two pairs
of parallel sides.
• Two pairs of opposite angles
Parallelogram
are congruent.
• Consecutive angles are
supplementary.
• Possesses all properties of a
parallelogram.
Rectangle
• All angles are right angles.
• The diagonals are congruent.
• Possesses all properties of a
parallelogram.
• All sides are congruent.
Rhombus • The diagonals bisect the
angles.
• The diagonals are
perpendicular bisectors of
each other.
• Possesses all properties of a
Square
rhombus.
 • Possesses all properties of a
rectangle.
• All sides are congruent.
• All angles are right angles.

• A quadrilateral with exactly

one pair of parallel sides (the
parallel sides are called
bases.)
Trapezoid
• A trapezoid in which the
nonparallel sides (the legs)
are congruent is called an
isosceles trapezoid.

• A quadrilateral with two pairs

Kite of adjacent sides that are
equal to each other.

Polygon: A closed figure determined by three or more line segments called sides.
Each side must intersect exactly two other sides only at their endpoints, and the sides
must be noncollinear and have a common endpoint. The point where two line segments
meet is called a vertex (or corner), forming an angle. A polygon with n sides is called
an n-gon. If a polygon has congruent sides, it is called a regular polygon.

A polygon with five sides and five

Pentagon
angles.

A polygon with six sides and six

Hexagon angles.

A polygon with seven sides and

Heptagon seven angles.

A polygon with eight sides and eight

Octagon
angles.
 A polygon with nine sides and nine
Nonagon
angles.

A polygon with ten sides and ten

Decagon
angles.

A line forming a closed loop where

Circle every point on the loop is a fixed
distance from the center point.

A regular oval shape traced by a

point moving in a plane such that the
Ellipse
sum of its distances from two other
points (the foci) is constant.

Common Three-Dimensional Geometric Shapes

Name of Shapes Figure Description and Properties

A box-shaped object with six flat
faces, all of which are rectangles
Rectangular and have right angles. It is a prism
Prism/Cuboid because it maintains the same
cross-section along its length.

Has two identical triangular faces

Triangular Prism (bases) connected by three
rectangular faces (lateral faces).

• Has 6 faces.
• Each face has 4 edges and is
a square.
• Has 12 edges.
Cube • Has 8 vertices (corner points),
with 3 edges meeting at each
vertex.
• It is one of the Platonic solids.

Platonic Solid: A three-dimensional geometric shape where each face is the same
regular polygon, and the same number of faces meet at each vertex.
 • Has 5 faces.
• Four faces are triangles.
Square Pyramid • The base is a square.
• Has 5 vertices.
• Has 8 edges.

• Has 4 faces.
• Three side faces are triangles.
Triangular
• The base is a triangle.
Pyramid
• Has 4 vertices.
• Has six edges.

• Perfectly symmetrical.
• All points on the surface are
the same distance 'r' from the
center.
Sphere • Has no edges or vertices.
• Has one surface (not a
"face").
• Is not a polyhedron because it
has a curved surface.

• Has a flat base and a flat top

that are the same shape.
Cylinder • Has one curved side.
• Is not a polyhedron due to its
curved surface.

• Has a circle at one end, a

point at the other end, and a
Cone curved side.
• Is not a polyhedron due to its
curved surface.

• Can be formed by revolving a

small circle (radius
• r) along a line made by a
Torus bigger circle (radius R).
• Has no edges or vertices.
• Is not a polyhedron as it has a
curved surface.
 TRANSFORMATION

Definition: In general, a transformation is an act, process, or instance of transforming or

being transformed. In mathematics, specifically geometry, transformation refers to the
movement of objects in the coordinate plane. It is an operation that moves, flips, or
changes a shape to create a new shape in a plane. Geometric transformations involve
taking a pre-image and transforming it in some way to produce an image.

Common Mathematical Transformations:

• Dilated
• Translated
• Rotated
• Reflected

Categories of Transformation:

• Rigid Transformation (Isometry): A transformation that does not change the

shape or size of the pre-image.
• Non-Rigid Transformation: A transformation that changes the size but not the
shape of the pre-image.

Types of Transformation:

1. Rotation:
o Involves turning an object about a fixed point called the center of rotation.
o Does not change the size or shape of the object.
o The distance from the center to any point on the object remains the same.
o It is a Rigid Transformation (Isometry).

Example: The triangle ABC is rotated about the point (0,0). This is a rotation of
90° counterclockwise

2. Translation:
o Involves taking each point in an object and sliding it in the same direction.
o Moves objects in space without changing their size, shape, or orientation.
 o Every point of the object must move the same distance and in the same
direction.
o Essentially, it is sliding a figure in any direction.
o It is a Rigid Transformation.

3. Dilation:
o A transformation that changes the size of an object while keeping all its
angles the same and its sides in proportion.
o Sometimes called compression, contraction, or enlargement.
o It expands or contracts an object without changing its shape or orientation.
o It is enlarging or reducing a figure.
o It is a Non-Rigid Transformation.

4. Reflection:
o A transformation that involves flipping an object without changing its size or
shape.
o The image produced is the same size as the pre-image.
o Every point is equidistant from a fixed line called the line of symmetry or
mirror line.
o It is flipping a figure over a line.
o It is a Rigid Transformation.
 5. Glide Reflection:
o A special type of two-step isometry that combines reflection and translation
into a single operation.
o Consists of a reflection over a line followed by a translation along that line.
o It is a Rigid Transformation.

Congruent and Similar Shapes

• Congruent Shapes: Two shapes are congruent when one shape can become
another using only turns, flips, and/or slides.
• Similar Shapes: Two shapes are similar when one shape needs to be resized to
become another (and may also involve turns, flips, and/or slides).

SYMMETRY

Definition: An object is said to be symmetrical when one shape becomes exactly like the
other when moved in some way. According to Ian Stewart (2013), symmetry can be
defined as a transformation of a mathematical structure of a specific kind. Objects that
are not symmetrical are called asymmetrical. An object is symmetric when it can be
divided into two identical pieces. The line that divides the object into symmetrical halves
is called the Line of Symmetry.

Types of Line of Symmetry:

• Vertical Symmetry: The line that cuts the object vertically into two identical
halves.

• Horizontal Symmetry: The line that cuts the object horizontally into two identical
halves.

• Diagonal Symmetry: The diagonal line that cuts across the diagonal corners of
the object and divides the object into identical halves.

Principles of Symmetry:

1. Rotational Symmetry:
o An object has rotational symmetry when it still looks the same after some
rotation (of less than one full turn).
o The angle of turning during rotation is called the angle of rotation.
o The number of positions in which a figure can be rotated and still appears
exactly as it did before the rotation is called the order of symmetry.

Example: The angle of rotation of the object above is 90° and the order of
symmetry is 4.
2. Translational or Glide Symmetry:
o The movement is a shift or slide in a specific direction without rotation or
reflection.
o The distance between points and angles within the object will not change.

3. Reflection Symmetry:
o Also known as mirror symmetry.
o If you place a mirror along the line of symmetry, it will give you a reflection
that is the same size and shape as the original image.

4. Glide Reflection Symmetry:

o Combines the principles of glide (translation) and reflection to create
alternating wallpaper patterns.
 TESSELLATION

Definition: Tessellation is a pattern that uses different transformations of different

geometric shapes. It creates repeating figures that do not overlap, have no empty spaces,
and fit together.

Types of Tessellation:

1. Translation Tessellation:
o This type of pattern is made by cutting a portion of the tile and placing it on
the other side.
o The process is repeated until the desired size is reached.

2. Rotation Tessellation:
o Done by rotating the tile approximately 90 degrees to portion the tile
adjacent to the top.
o This is done repeatedly until the desired size is achieved.

3. Reflection Tessellation:
o Involves cutting, flipping, and sliding the original tile.
o It can also be cut, slid, and then flipped. The flip is 180 degrees.
4. Dilation Tessellation:
o A tessellation where the shape of the object is the same as the original
figure but of a different size.
 PATTERNS AND DIAGRAMS

Patterns and diagrams are essential tools used across various fields, including
mathematics, science, engineering, and art.

Patterns

• In Mathematics:
o Patterns refer to sequences of numbers, shapes, or objects that follow a
specific rule or repetition.
o They can be numerical, geometric, or logical.
o Patterns are studied in algebra, number theory, and geometry.

• In Art:
o Patterns are used to create visually appealing compositions, decorative
motifs, and rhythmic designs.
o Artists find inspiration from patterns in nature, architecture, culture, and
geometry.
o Patterns in art can be repetitive, symmetrical, or abstract.

Geometric Pattern

- A geometric pattern is a type of pattern formed from geometric shapes that are
typically repeated, similar to a wallpaper design.
 Tiles, fritware with lustre decoration, Wooden minbar, Fatih Cami, Istanbul,
th th
Tiles, Jameh Masjid, Isfahan, Iran,
Kashan, Iran, 13 -14 century, Turkey, c. 1771 th th
16 -17 century, Thomas
Museum no. 1074-1875. © Victoria &
Albert Museum, London. Detangase, Flickr.

Geometric Designs

Geometric Designs are patterns, motifs, or compositions created using geometric shapes,
lines, and forms. They are characterized by their use of simple geometric elements such
as circles, squares, triangles, and polygons, along with principles like symmetry,
repetition, and proportion. Tessellations are a type of geometric design.

Diagrams

• In Mathematics:
o Diagrams are graphical representations that illustrate mathematical
concepts, relationships, and structures.
o They help in understanding geometric figures, functions, equations, and
proofs.
o Common mathematical diagrams include coordinate planes, graphs, Venn
diagrams, tree diagrams, and geometric constructions.
 • In Art:
o Diagrams can visually convey concepts, ideas, and relationships.
o Artists create schematic diagrams, conceptual drawings, or visual
metaphors to explore themes, narratives, or abstract concepts.
o Diagrams in art can bridge the gap between representation and abstraction,
encouraging viewers to interpret and engage with the artwork in unique
ways.
o An example is Peter Halley's "Two Cells with Conduit," where the division
into two rectangles suggests architectural spaces connected by an
"underworld of pipes, cables, and wires".

Designs, Arts, and Culture: Shared Concepts

"Symmetry, as wide or as narrow as you may define its meaning, is one idea by which a
man through the ages has tried to comprehend and create order, beauty, and perfection"
- Hermann Weyl.

Both art and mathematics share fundamental building blocks and concepts related to
human culture:

Concept In Mathematics In Art

Shapes Defined as 2D or 3D figures with Used as building blocks for
specific attributes; studied in compositions; manipulated to create
geometry (area, perimeter, visual interest, balance, and harmony;
angles). basis for forms and figures.
Lines Fundamental elements extending Define shapes, create contours, and
infinitely in both directions; convey movement and direction; artists
studied in relation to angles, use varied line qualities (thickness,
intersections, and parallelism. length, curvature) for effects.
Forms Refer to three-dimensional Refer to 3D representations of objects
shapes occupying space; and figures; artists use shading,
analyzed by surface area, perspective, and modeling to create
volume, and spatial relationships. illusion of volume and depth.
Both art and math involve drawing, the use of shapes and forms, and an understanding
of spatial concepts, two and three dimensions, measurement, estimation, and pattern.
Geometry provides the most obvious connection between these two disciplines.

Geometric Designs in Various Cultures:

• Islamic Art and Designs:

o Characterized by abundant use of geometric patterns to adorn architectural
and decorative surfaces.
o Basic shapes and patterns are rooted in the artistic traditions of pre-Islamic
Byzantine and Sasanian empires.
o In the Philippines, Islamic art features designs of flowers, plant forms, and
geometric designs.
o Commonly seen in calligraphy, architecture, painting, clothing, and other
fine arts.
o Mosques: One of the most common Islamic art infrastructures,
characterized by the absence of human form in their art. Examples include
Sheikh Karimol Makhdum Mosque (Tawi-Tawi, Philippines) and The
Golden Mosque (Manila).

o Okkir: A traditional Muslim art form that uses geometry with symmetric
curves, glide, reflection concepts, and floral artwork. A popular motif is the
imagery of a dragon or serpent.
 o Batik: A Muslim design influenced by Indonesia, containing abstract
themes with geometric and floral designs. Human and animal depictions are
rare motifs in batik.

• Indigenous Traditional Woven Filipino Fabrics: Many different ethnic groups

use geometric designs.

Christian Geometric Art (12th Century onwards):

o Prevalent in the 12th century, with geometric patterns and designs evident
in paintings, sculpture, tiles, and especially cathedrals/churches.
o Unlike Islamic mosques, most Christian churches feature human imagery,
often combining images of God with geometric designs.
o Examples include opus sectile (cut work) found in walls, floors, or ceilings
of cathedrals and museums, and images in the windows of Charles
Cathedral in Europe.