Module 2: Vector Spaces

Dr. P. Phani Bushan Rao

Assistant Professor
Contact: 9347046396
Email: ppeddi@[Link]
Office Room: VB 411
SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra
 Outline:
• Vector Space
• Vector Subspace
• Linear combination of vectors
• Linear span
• Linear Dependence
• Linear Independence
• Basis
• Dimension
• Linear transformations (Definition and examples)

Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra

Vector Space:
Let V be a nonempty set of objects (called vectors), on which two operations
are defined, addition and multiplication by scalars (real numbers), then V is a
vector space if the following ten axioms (or rules) are satisfied:
1. 𝒖 + 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉, for 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉,
2. 𝒖 + 𝒗 = 𝒗 + 𝒖, for 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉
3. 𝒖 + (𝒗 + 𝒘) = 𝒖 + 𝒗 + 𝒘, for 𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘 ∈ 𝑉
4. There is a zero vector 0 in V such that 𝒖 + 0 = 𝒖, for 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉
5. For each 𝒖 in V, there is a vector -𝒖 in V such that 𝒖 + (-𝒖) = 0
6. The scalar multiple of 𝒖 by c, denoted by c 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉, for 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉
7. c(𝒖 + 𝒗 )= c 𝒖 + c 𝒗, for 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝑉
8. (c + d) 𝒖 = c 𝒖 + d 𝒖, for 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉
9. c (d 𝒖 ) = (cd) 𝒖, for 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉
10. 1 𝒖 = 𝒖, for 𝒖 ∈ 𝑉.

Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra

Note:
1. Vector means an ordered list of numbers.
2. A matrix with only one column is called a column vector, or simply a vector
Example:

3. Vectors in 𝑅2 :
𝑅 stands for real numbers i.e., the entries in the vector are real numbers, and
exponent 2 indicates that each vector has two entries.
Vectors in 𝑅2 are 2 x 1 column matrices with two entries.
4. Geometric Descriptions of 𝑅2 :
Consider a rectangular coordinate system in the plane. Each point in the
plane is determined by an ordered pair of numbers. Therefore, the geometric
𝑎
point (𝑎, 𝑏) can be identified with a column vector .
2
𝑏
So, we may regard 𝑅 as set of all points in plane.

Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra

Vectors as points

Vectors as arrows

Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra

5. Vectors in 𝑅3 are 3 x 1 column matrices with three entries.
𝑢1
Example 𝒖 = 𝑢2
𝑢3

We may regard 𝑅3 as the set of all points in 3-dimensional coordinate space.

6. Vectors in 𝑅𝑛 are 𝑛 x 1 column matrices with 𝑛 entries.

𝑢1
Example 𝒖 = ⋮
𝑢𝑛
• An ordered sequence (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , ..., 𝑢𝑛 ) of real numbers is called an ordered
𝑛-tuple.
• 𝑅𝑛 denotes the set of all ordered 𝑛-tuples of 𝑛 real numbers.
Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra
There are two commonly used ways to denote the 𝑛-tuples in 𝑅𝑛 :

(i) As rows (𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , ..., 𝑢𝑛 )

𝑢1
(ii) As columns ⋮
𝑢𝑛
In any event they are called vectors and will be denoted using bold type such
as 𝒗.
Zero Vector:
The vector whose entries are all zero is called the zero vector and is denoted
by 0.
• The zero vector is unique
• The vector -u, called the negative of u, is unique for each u in V.

Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra

Problems:
1. Show that the set 𝑃𝑛 of polynomials of degree 𝑛 is a vector space.
Solution: Let 𝑃𝑛 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 +. . . +𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 /𝑎𝑖 ∈ ℝ∀𝑖
Let 𝒖 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 +. . . +𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ∈ 𝑃𝑛 and 𝒗 = 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑥 2 +. . . +𝑏𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 ∈ 𝑃𝑛
𝒖 + 𝒗 = 𝑎0 + 𝑏0 + (𝑎1 +𝑏1 )𝑥 + (𝑎2 +𝑏2 )𝑥 2 +. . . +(𝑎𝑛 +𝑏𝑛 )𝑥 𝑛 ∈ 𝑃𝑛
As 𝑎𝑖 ∈ ℝ, clearly 𝒖 + 𝒗 = 𝒗 + 𝒖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒖 + 𝒗 + 𝒘 = 𝒖 + (𝒗 + 𝒘) satisy for 𝒖, 𝒗, 𝒘 ∈ 𝑃𝑛
Clearly, the zero vector is the zero polynomial 𝟎 = 0 + 0𝑥 + 0𝑥 2 +. . . +0𝑥 𝑛 ∈ 𝑃𝑛 .
The scalar multiple 𝑐𝒖 = (𝑐𝑎0 ) + (𝑐𝑎1 )𝑥 + (𝑐𝑎2 )𝑥 2 +. . . +(𝑐𝑎𝑛 )𝑥 𝑛 ∈ 𝑃𝑛 for 𝑐 ∈ ℝ.
Clearly, −1 𝒖 = −𝒖 is the negative of 𝒖 ∈ 𝑃𝑛 , such that 𝒖 + −𝒖 = 𝟎.
As 𝑎𝑖 ∈ ℝ, clearly c 𝒖 + 𝒗 = 𝑐𝒖 + 𝑐𝒗; 𝑐 + 𝑑 𝒖 = 𝑐𝒖 + 𝑑𝒖; 𝑐 𝑑𝒖 = 𝑐𝑑 𝒖, 1𝒖 = 𝒖
Therefore, the set of all polynomials of degree at most 𝑛 is a vector space.
2. Show that the set H of all points (3s,2+5s) in 𝑅2 is not a vector space.
Solution:
3 3 6
Let 𝒖 = ∈ 𝐻 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠 = 1 and 𝑐 = 2, then 𝑐𝒖 = 2 =
7 7 14
3𝑠 6
If this is in H, then there is some s such that =
2 + 5𝑠 14
That is, s = 2 and s = 12/5,which is impossible.
So 𝑐𝒖 ∉ 𝐻 and H is not a vector space.
Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra
Problem 3:
Show that the set of all m x n matrices 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 is a vector space, under the
usual operations of addition of matrices and multiplication by real scalars.

Note:
1. The spaces 𝑅𝑛 (𝑛-dimensional Euclidean Space), where 𝑛 ≥ 1, are the
good (premier) examples of vector spaces.
2. Let V be the set of all arrows (directed line segments) in three dimensional
space, then V is a vector space.
3. Let V be the set of all real-valued functions defined on a set of real
numbers or some interval on the real line, then V is a vector space.
(The zero vector is the zero function defined by 0 𝑥 = 0, and the negative
of the function is defined by −𝑓 𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥))
4. The set of solutions of a homogeneous system of linear equations is a
vector space.
Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra
Addition of vectors:
Parallelogram Rule

If u and v in 𝑅2 are represented as points in the plane, then u + v corresponds

to the fourth vertex of the parallelogram whose other vertices are u, 0, and v.

Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra

Scalar multiple of a nonzero vector:

𝑐𝒖 for scalar 𝑐 and nonzero vector 𝒖 in 𝑅2

Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra

Subspace:
Let H be a subset of the vector space V. Then H is said to be a subspace of V,
if the following three properties are satisfied:
i. The zero vector of V i.e., 𝟎 ∈ 𝐻.
ii. 𝒖 + 𝒗 ∈ 𝐻, for 𝒖, 𝒗 ∈ 𝐻 (i.e., H is closed under vector addition).
iii. 𝑐𝒖 ∈ 𝐻, for 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝒖 ∈ 𝐻 (i.e., H is closed under multiplication by
a scalar.
Note:
1. Every subspace is a vector space. Conversely, every vector space is
a subspace of itself and possibly of other larger spaces.
2. The set H = {0} consisting of only the zero vector in a vector space V, is a
subspace of V, called the zero subspace and written as {0}.

Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra

3. The vector space 𝑅2 is not a subspace of 𝑅3 because 𝑅2 is not even a
subset of 𝑅3 .
4. Show that the set is a subspace of 𝑅3 .

Solution: The set H represents all points of 𝑥𝑦-plane through 𝑧 = 0.

Therefore, the zero vector of 𝑅3 , 𝟎 ∈ 𝐻
𝑎 𝑝 𝑎+𝑝
𝒖 = 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻, 𝒗 = 𝑞 ∈ 𝐻 ⟹ 𝒖 + 𝒗 = 𝑏 + 𝑞 ∈ 𝐻 (i.e.,H is closed under vector addition)
0 𝑎 0 𝑐𝑎 0
and 𝒖 = 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 ⟹ 𝑐𝑢 = 𝑐𝑏 ∈ 𝐻 (i.e., H is closed under scalar multiplication)
0 0 3
Therefore, H is a subspace of 𝑅 .
(The 𝑥𝑦-plane as a subspace of 𝑅3 )

Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra

5. A plane in 𝑅3 not through the origin is not a subspace of 𝑅3 , because the
plane does not contain the zero vector of 𝑅3 .
Similarly, a line in 𝑅2 not through the origin, is not a subspace of 𝑅2 .
6. The set of all 𝑛𝑡ℎ degree polynomials ℙ𝑛 is a subspace of set of all
polynomials ℙ.

Linear Combination:
Let {𝑣ҧ1 𝑣ҧ2 . . . 𝑣𝑝ҧ } be a set of vectors in ℝ𝑛 . A vector 𝑦ത is a linear combination
of 𝑣ҧ1 𝑣ҧ2 . . . 𝑣𝑝ҧ if it can be expressed in the form:
𝑦ത = 𝑐1 𝑣ҧ1 + 𝑐2 𝑣ҧ2 + . . . +𝑐𝑝 𝑣𝑝ҧ .
Here 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , . . . , 𝑐𝑝 , are scalars called weights or coefficients of 𝑣ҧ1 𝑣ҧ2 . . . 𝑣𝑝ҧ .
Examples: Some linear combinations of 𝒖 and 𝒗 are:
1 3
3𝒖 + 2𝒗; 𝒖+ 𝒗; 2𝒖(= 2𝒖 + 0𝒗); 𝟎(= 0𝒖 + 0𝒗)
2 4
Note: The weights in a linear combination can be zero also.
Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra
 −1 2
Example: Some Linear combinations of 𝑣1 = and 𝑣2 =
1 1

𝒖 = 3𝒗𝟏 − 2𝒗𝟐
𝒘 = (𝟓/𝟐)𝒗𝟏 − (1/2)𝒗𝟐

Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra

Problems:
1. Determine if 𝒃 is a linear combination of 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎3 , given

Solution: Is 𝒃 a linear combination of 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 ?

This means that does the vector equation 𝑥𝒂𝟏 + 𝑦𝒂𝟐 + 𝑧𝒂𝟑 = 𝒃 have a
solution?
Let 𝒃 = 𝑥𝒂𝟏 + 𝑦𝒂𝟐 + 𝑧𝒂𝟑 for 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 real numbers
2 1 0 5
−1 = 𝑥 −2 + 𝑦 1 + 𝑧 −6
6 0 2 8
𝑥 + 0𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 2
−2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 6𝑧 = −1
0𝑧 + 2𝑦 + 8𝑧 = 6
Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra
 1 0 5 2 1 0 5 2 1 0 5 2
Augmented matrix is: −2 1 −6 −1 ~ 0 1 4 3 ~ 0 1 4 3
0 2 8 6 0 2 8 6 0 0 0 0
The augmented matrix has no row of the form 0 0 0 𝑏 for nonzero 𝑏.
Therefore, the linear system corresponding to augmented matrix has a
solution.
So, the vector equation 𝑥𝒂𝟏 + 𝑦𝒂𝟐 + 𝑧𝒂𝟑 = 𝒃 has a solution, and therefore
𝒃 a linear combination of 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 .
Note:
In particular, 𝒃 can be generated by a linear combination of 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , . . . , 𝒂𝒏 if
and only if there exists a solution to the linear system 𝐴𝑿 = 𝒃 with
augmented matrix [𝐴 | 𝒃].

Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra

Span of vectors:
If 𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , . . . , 𝒗𝒑 are in 𝑅𝑛 , then the set of all linear combinations of
𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , . . . , 𝒗𝒑 is called as the Span {𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , . . . , 𝒗𝒑 }.
i.e.,Span {𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , . . . , 𝒗𝒑 }= {𝑐1 𝒗𝟏 + 𝑐2 𝒗𝟐 + . . . +𝑐𝑝 𝒗𝒑 / 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , . . . , 𝑐𝑝 ∈ 𝑅}
Note:
1. Span {𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , . . . , 𝒗𝒑 } is a subset of 𝑅𝑛 generated (or spanned)
by 𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , . . . , 𝒗𝒑 .
2. If Span {𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , . . . , 𝒗𝒑 } = 𝑉, then the vectors 𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , . . . , 𝒗𝒑 are called a
spanning set for 𝑉.
Example: Span {𝒆𝟏 , 𝒆𝟐 , . . . , 𝒆𝒏 } = 𝑅𝑛 , where the vectors 𝒆𝟏 , 𝒆𝟐 , . . . , 𝒆𝒏 are the
columns of 𝑛 × 𝑛 identity matrix. The vectors 𝒆𝟏 , 𝒆𝟐 , . . . , 𝒆𝒏 are called the
spanning set of 𝑅𝑛 .
3. The zero vector will be in Span {𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , . . . , 𝒗𝒑 }
i.e., 𝟎 = 0𝒗𝟏 + 0𝒗𝟐 + . . . +0𝒗𝒑

Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra

Geometric Description of Span{𝒗}:
If 𝒗 is a nonzero vector in 𝑅3 , then Span{𝒗} = 𝑘𝒗 is
the set of points on the line in 𝑅3 through 𝒗 and 0.

Geometric Description of Span{𝒖, 𝒗}:

If 𝒖, 𝒗 are nonzero vector in 𝑅3 , then, with 𝒗 not a
multiple of 𝒖, then Span{𝒖, 𝒗} = {𝑎𝒖 + 𝑏𝒗/𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅}
is the plane in 𝑅3 that contains 𝒖, 𝒗, and 0.
In particular, Span {𝒖, 𝒗} contains the line in 𝑅3
through 𝒖 and 0 (for 𝑏 = 0)and the line through
𝒗 and 0 (for 𝑎 = 0).

Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra

Note: A vector 𝒃 is in Span {𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , . . . , 𝒗𝒑 } ?
Means, whether the vector equation 𝑥1 𝒗𝟏 + 𝑥2 𝒗𝟐 + . . . +𝑥𝑝 𝒗𝒑 = 𝒃 has a
solution ?
or, equivalently, asking whether the linear system 𝐴𝑿 = 𝒃 with augmented
matrix [𝐴 | 𝒃] or 𝒗𝟏 𝒗𝟐 . . . 𝒗𝒑 𝒃 has a solution ?

Problem 1:

Is 𝒃 in 𝑊?
Problem 2:

Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra

Theorem: If 𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , . . . , 𝒗𝒑 are in a vector space 𝑉, then Span {𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , . . . , 𝒗𝒑 }
is a subspace of 𝑉.
Note 1. Span {𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , . . . , 𝒗𝒑 } is called as the subspace spanned
(or generated) by 𝒗𝟏 , 𝒗𝟐 , . . . , 𝒗𝒑 .
2. 𝐻 is a subspace of 𝑉 means 𝐻 is a span of vectors in 𝑉
Problem 1:
Show that all polynomials of the form 𝑝ҧ 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑡 2 , where 𝑎 is in 𝑅 is a
subspace of set of all polynomials 𝑃𝑛 of degree 𝑛 ≥ 1.
Solution: Method 1: Suppose 𝐻 = {𝑎𝑡 2 /𝑎 ∈ 𝑅}
Now, 0ത = 0𝑡 2 ∈ 𝐻
Let 𝑢ത = 𝑎𝑡 2 ∈ 𝐻 and 𝑣ҧ = 𝑏𝑡 2 ∈ 𝐻, then 𝑢ത + 𝑣ҧ = (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑡 2 ∈ 𝐻 (∵ (𝑎 + 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅)
and c𝑢ത = 𝑐 𝑎𝑡 2 = (𝑐𝑎)𝑡 2 ∈ 𝐻 (∵ 𝑐𝑎 ∈ 𝑅)
Therefore, 𝐻 is a subspace of 𝑃𝑛 .
Method 2: Since 𝑡 2 is a vector in the vector space 𝑃𝑛 , Span {𝑡 2 } =𝑎𝑡 2 is a
subspace of 𝑃𝑛 .
Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra
Problem 2:
Let W be the set of all vectors of the form . Show that W is a subspace
of 𝑅4 .
Problem 3:
Let W be the set of all vectors of the form .. Examine whether W is a
subspace of 𝑅3 or not.
Problem 3:
Let W be the set of all vectors of the form .Find a set S of vectors
that spans W or give an example to show that W is not a vector
subspace of 𝑅4 .

Dr. PBR, SoS, Department of Mathematics MATH1272: Linear Algebra