CHAPTER 1

POLITICAL SCIENCE - NATURE & SCOPE

Society: It may be defined as “the complex of organized association and institution within a community".
It is an unorganized or organized, it is wider or narrow groups of human beings living together in a
particular area. The social instinct of man compels him to live in society. According to Laski, by society,
“I mean a group of human beings living together for the satisfaction of their mutual wants".

State: Societies are politically organized under a common law within prescribed boundaries. It stands for
the protection to life, liberty and property to individuals and it tries to promote human welfare and good
life.

Government: It is the institutionalized power of state or authority. It is the agent through which the will
of the state is formulated, expressed and realized. It consists of institutions responsible for making
collective decisions for society.

Politics: It is the study of state and activity of person involved with the state i.e. government. It refers to
the current problems of state and government, the actual process of co-operation, conflict and
competition for power in society.

Science: is the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through
observation, evidence and experiment.

Political Science: is the branch of knowledge that deals with systematic study of the structure and
behavior of the state and political institutions through scientific analysis. It is an academic discipline
concerned with man's official institutions and activities, such as the state, government, citizenship,
public affairs etc. In other words, it is a social science concerned with the theory, description, analysis
and prediction of political behaviour, political activities, and political system as a whole.

MEANING OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

The term 'Political Science' consists of two words, viz, political and science. The word 'politics' is
derived from the Greek word 'Polis' which means the city-state of Ancient Greeks. In ancient Greece, the
basic unit of political organization was the city-state. It was the Greeks who first embarked upon the
study of state as distinct from the church. The foundations of political thinking were laid by the great
Greek philosophers, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Plato was the author of the book “The Republic”.
Aristotle, the father of political science, firstly used the term 'politics' and converted the subject
into an academic discipline. He published his book 'Politics' as a first systematic study of politics.

Science: It is the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world
through observation, evidence and experiment. So, political science is the branch of knowledge that
deals with systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the state and political institutions through
scientific analysis. Politics refers to the subject matter of our study; science denotes the
methodology or the way
of studying the process of politics. The first term seeks to answer the question "what is studied" and the
second term refers to "how is it studied". Therefore, the political phenomenon which should be studied
in accordance with a definite plan or system is called political science.

DEFINITIONS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

It is difficult to give a precise definition to political science, because of its varying scope in different
situations. Let us examine some of those definitions.

PAUL JANET • “Political science is that part of social science which

treats of the foundations of state and the principles of
government”

• "The study of politics concerns itself with the life of man in

H.J LASKI relation to organized states"

• “Political science is the study of shaping and sharing of

LASSWELL power”

• “Political science is the study of the authoritative

DAVID EASTON allocation of values for a society”

GARNER • “Political Science begins and ends with the state"

LEACOCK • “Political Science deals with government only”

ARISTOTLE • “Science of Polis”
GETTLE
• “Science of State”
LECOCK • “Politics deals with Government”
GILCHRIST
• “General problem of state and government”
DHAL EASTON
• “Politics is shaping and sharing of power”

• “Authoritative allocation of values”

MORGENTHAU • “Politics is the struggle for and use of power”

From the above definitions we may conclude that the ‘State’ is the central theme of Political
Science. It is the study about the state, its origin, its nature, its structure, its functions and so
on. Also, it can be observed that there is an omission of the human element.
Modern political scientists have also emphasized the element of power in the study of
the subject. Abraham Kaplan, Harold. D. Lasswell defined politics as the “study of
shaping and sharing of power”. It suggests that struggle for power is the subject
matter of the study of politics. Since this struggle takes place at all levels-domestic,
local, regional, national and international – politics becomes a universal activity. Also,
after and during the Second World War, people started deviating from the traditional
approach and laid more emphasis on the practical or behavioural aspect of the study.
Why one political institution succedded at one place and failed at another, how the
people – the ruler and the ruled – influenced politics, became a matter of serious study.

Robert A Dahl uses the term ‘political system’ instead of ‘politics’ and he
defined it as any persistent pattern of human relationships that involves to a significant
extent, control, influence, power or authority.

So the study of political science or politics include not only state and
government but also an enquiry into the struggles for power that takes place at all
levels beginning from the household to the world at large. Hence a comprehensive
view of the subject of political science involves everything connected with the life of
man in the process of making himself.

NATURE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

 Political science is still growing and developing subject. So there is no

uniformity among political thinkers regarding the nature of political science,
whether it should be treated as a science or not. Aristotle, the father of political
science, considered it as the master science or a perfect science. Political
philosophers like Bodin, Hobbes, Laski, Bluntschli, Montesquie, Bryce also
held the view that political science is a science.

 Some other political scientists reject the scientific nature of political science. It
is said that in political science there is no uniform principles on laws which are
universally valid. Human behavior is unpredictable. It, therefore, does not
supply sufficient materials for scientific study. The essence of the scientific
method is that it will not accept generalizations unless they are based on facts
which can be verified. Political scientists like Edmund Burke, Comte, Metland,
Brogan, etc., deny the claim of political science as a science.

 The reality is that, a social science is different from natural science or a

physical science. Science is the systematic study of the structure and behaviour
of the physical and natural world through observation, evidence and
experiment. It is the body of true knowledge acquired through scientific
process. But in social science we cannot expect so much accuracy and precision
as we see in science subjects. Hundred percentage predictions are not possible
 in social science because it deals with the behaviour of man and his political
institutions. There is only remote chance for verification and prediction in this
subject. While in the study of political phenomena, we can apply scientific
method and tools.

SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

Nowadays, it is very difficult to determine the precise and definite boundaries of

political science. It is wide and comprehensive subject and there is no uniformity
among political scientists about its scope. It is the study of organizations and activities
of the state, both at national and international levels. It also deals with the distribution
of governing power among several agencies by which the actions of the state are
determined, expressed, and exercised and with the problems of international life. Yet
some of the important subjects in the scope of political science are given below:-

1. Political Science is the Study of State and Government - In the political science we
study about the theoretical, structural and behavioral aspects of organization and forms
of state and government.

According to Bluntschli, "political science is a science which is concerned

with the state, endeavours to understand and comprehend the state in its essential
nature, various forms, manifestations and development."

According to Robson,"the purpose of political science is to throw light on

political ideas and political actions so that the government of man may be improved".
The government is the agency of the state through which the purpose of the state is
realized. It is the most lively and integral part of the state.

According to Paul Janet,"political science is that part of social science which

treats of the foundation of state and the principles of the Government”.

2. It is the study of Relationship between the man and the state - The scope of
Political science also includes a study of the nature of relationship between the
individual and the state. The process of men with the society is an important aspect of
political science. The state guarantees certain rights and liberties to its citizens and at the
same time impose certain reasonable restrictions on them. In fact, state exists for the
welfare of the people. As an agent of the state, it is the function of the government to try
to secure welfare for all who live within the territorial boundary of the state.

Again the government of any state is greatly influenced by the thoughts and
ideas of that state. Therefore, the study about the state and government is bounded to
be inconclusive without the study of the nature of the people who constitute the state.
It is in this connection Max Webber has stated that political science is a descriptive 1
and normative science2 and describes it as the study of human behavior in the process
of enquiry of justice.
3. Study of Political Theory - The theories are the results of the thoughts and
research of many scholars and exponents of political science. Political scientists
formulate various political concepts and establish theories. According to Gettle,
"political science is concerned with the historical survey of origin, development of
political theories and ideals, the analysis of the fundamental nature of the state, its
organization, relation to the individuals that compose it and its relation to other states".
It is the study of the fundamental questions of the state, government, politics, liberty,
justice, property, rights, law, the enforcement of legal code by authority etc.

1 Descriptive science is a category of science that involves observing, recording,

describing, and classifying phenomena.
2 In the applied sciences, normative science is a type of information that is
developed, presented, or interpreted based on an assumed, usually unstated, preference
for a particular policy or class of policies.

It may be subdivided into political philosophy, legal political theory, the

concept of sovereignty and legal controls for the exercise of political power, scientific
political theory, consisting of empirical observations of political events etc. So a
student of political science must start his study of the subject with the theories.

4. Study of political institutions - Political Science is also concerned with the study of
political institutions and associations through with the state acts. It covers the study of
the constitutions, comparative government, public administration and local government
etc. It also deals with the nature of different political institutions including government,
their structure such as legislature, executive and judiciary, its working, its merits and
demerits etc. Further it studies about some informal groups like social, economic,
educational institutions in a society.

5. Study of political dynamics - Political dynamics examines the current forces

which exert influence on the government and politics. Along with the change of habits
as also are bound to occur with men, social system also changes. This explains why the
city states of ancient times are replaced by the nation states in the present century. The
search for the cause of this kind of changes in the character of the state and government
is the study of political dynamics. It covers a wide range and includes the study of
political parties, public opinion, pressure groups, lobbies, etc. The study of these
political dynamics helps to explain the political behavior of individuals and different
groups.

6. A study of International relations, international organizations and

international law - Political science deals with the matters relating to the maintenance
of international relations, the international law and the organization concerned with the
maintenance of world peace and security. The human society is now thinking in terms of
forming a world government in the near future. International law provides the
framework within which the states should enjoy their rights and duties. This has made it
necessary to include in the study of political science. It is related to the maintenance of
international relations and different organizations connected with the maintenances of
peace and security among the states of the world.
The subject matter includes international law, international and regional
organizations like UNO, European Union, NAM, SAARC and League of Nations,
 diplomatic relations, treaties and agreements, arms control, human rights, pollution
control and global warming, sustainable development etc.

7. Study of political parties and related organizations - In a democratic state, political

parties play an important role in formation and functioning of government. They are
regarded as an unavoidable and central part for the successful working of democratic
political system. Its studies are important for understanding the nature and working of
political institutions of a country. The study of political science is also concerned with
the study of informal institutions through which the state acts i.e. pressure groups,
interests groups and other related social, economic, educational institutions etc.

8. It studies the past, present and future development of State - The scope of
Political Science includes the study of the past, present and future of states and its
activities. According to Gettle, "In the historical aspects, Political Science deals with the
origin of the state and the development of political theories in the past; in dealing with
the present it attempts to describe and classify existing political institutions and ideas.
Political Science also looks to the future, to improving political organizations and
activities in the light of changing conditions and changing ethical standards".

So, its scope is not restricted to the study of the past and the present alone, but
it directs future course of the development of the state. The study is also helpful to
improving the political institutions and modifying political activities in order to meet
the changing national and international demands.

RELATIONSHIP OF POLITICAL SCIENCE WITH THE OTHER ALLIED STUDIES

1. POLITICAL SCIENCE AND SOCIOLOGY: Sociology is the science of the

society. It deals with the origin, development and structure of the society and
attempts to study its aims and achievements. It describes social traditions,
customs and beliefs and deals with the origin and advancement of the human
culture and civilization. Sociology as the mother of all social sciences and as a
general social science has been closely related to political science in ways more
than one: the latter as the offspring of sociology is also a particular social
science. Political science is only a branch of sociology. Ratzenhofer believes
that “the State is a sociological as well as political phenomena and during its
early stages it is in fact really more of a social than a political institution.”
Sociology deals with the principal, religious and economic progress of
man, while political science is chiefly concerned with the political progress of
man. Since political facts form only a part of social facts, the scope of political
science is narrower than that of sociology. In other words, it can be said that
sociology is the mother of all social sciences and political science is only a
branch if sociology. The scope of political science is limited. It is a specialized
discipline and concerns itself with the particular aspect of social life. Sociology
studies political as well as non-political phenomena, while non-political
phenomena are beyond the scope of political science.

2. POLITICAL SCIENCE AND HISTORY: The relationship between political

science and history is very close and mutual. The two are contributory and
 complementary. As Seeley says, “History without political science has no fruit,
and political science without history has no root.” The affinity between history
and political science is so intimate that Freeman goes to the extent of saying
that “history is past politics and politics is present history.” In so much as
history not merely records events but analyses causes and points out
tendencies, it overlaps political science. Political science, however, goes
further. It uses historical facts to discover general laws and principles; it selects
analyses and systematizes the facts of history in order to extract the permanent
principles of political life. In a nutshell, both are inter-dependent and
complementary in true sense. This however does not mean that history and
political science is the same rather they substantially differ from each other.
Differences-
a) The subject-matter of both is different. History is only the chronological
record of the past events. On the other hand, political science studies the
present and the future also.
b) History is descriptive. It simply explains in a systematic way and describes
the events of the past; it doesn’t see the ideals. Political science is
ideological while utilizing the materials provided by history, it discovers
the common theories and laws.
c) Political science stidies from the point of view of the past, present and
future too but the history studies only regarding the past.
d) There is basic difference from the point of view of the object or purpose.
History describes the origin and development of the state. The political
science is mainly concerned with the fact as to what should be the purpose
and nature of the state. The jurisdiction of history is more extensive, it
covers everything like the art, culture, wars, etc.

3. POLITICAL SCIENCE AND PSYCHOLOGY: Psychology is the science of

the nature, functions and phenomena of the human mind. Man’s social
behaviour is governed by the activity of his mind. Political science studies the
political aspect of man’s social behaviour. It is, therefore, closely related to
psychology. If the political behaviour of man has to be properly understood, it
is necessary that its psychological roots be discovered. The scholars who think
psychologically hold that the state and other political institutions are a product
of the human mind. Hence in any country those political institutions and
systems can be successful which are in harmony with the mental states of its
people. The spread of demoacy and consequent increasing significance of
public opinion and propaganda have brought psychology and political science
close to each other.

4. POLITICAL SCIENCE AND GEOGRAPHY: The thinkers from ancient

times believed that the geographical position of a country affects its political
system. Geography is a study of climate, land, physical features, natural and
political divisions, production, population etc. French thinker Montesquieu held
that the climate determines the habits and thinking of the people. We can find
out which form of government will be successful in a country only if we know
its geographical situation. Aristotle said that a state must have water at least on
one side. It helps in trade with the foreign countries. Similarly he maintained
that countries surrounded by sea are safer because they cannot face large–scale
 attacks. Similarly, nature of land, availability of mineral resources, network of
natural waterways etc., do affect the economy.

5. POLITICAL SCIENCE AND JURISPRUDENCE

Jurisprudence helps in understanding why a particular law is important and what role it
plays in society. Jurisprudence does not limit itself to the development and evolution of
law but also contributes towards development of other social sciences which in turn leads
to overall development of society. Jurisprudence is often referred to as the grammar of law
for it helps people in the legal field to interpret a law better by giving a basic reasoning
and ideas behind a certain law. This provides an actual meaning of law and makes
interpretations easy. The theories of jurisprudence helps in the practical application of the
same.
Political science is a social study which investigates the powers, functions and all the
institutions of state and theories related to it. Jurisprudence studies law and political
science studies the dynamism of the state. The concept of law came in because of the
concept of state. After the state came into being, concepts such as laws and a way of
regulating individual conduct came into existence. Thus, jurists on various instances take
help of theories and nuances of political science to formulate theories related to
development of law. Political science also studies the rules and orders for regulations of
people in a defined territory which is also a subject matter of jurisprudence. Political
science enunciates the principles behind the organisations of a state and jurisprudence
analyses them and formulate concepts of law. There is an intimate and definitive linear
relationship between the two.
6. POLITICAL SCIENCE AND ETHICS
The subject matter of politics is to describe the structure and function of the government.
Politics prescribes laws for the citizens in order to regulate their conducts so that public good
can be [Link] is not only a social being but also political beings. The individual and the
state are inter [Link] science determines the duty of the individual to the state
and also duty for the state with regard to the individual. Rights and duties are maintained by
the state and as such moral life is intimately connected with the political life.

Ethics and politics are intimately related. Both are normative sciences. Ethics aims at the
supreme good of the individual whereas Politics aims at public good. Public good can be
attained through individual good; therefore politics aims at the establishment of an ideal
welfare state where more perfection of the citizens can be realized. Politics compares the
different forms of government and studies its constitutions in order to draw the picture of the
best form of a government.

Ethics on the other hand is a study of a man, his character, intention, and desire etc. in order
to assess his conduct. The scope of ethics in this sense is wider and altruistic.

7. POLITICAL SCIENCE AND ANTHROPOLOGY

 Anthropology deals with racial divisions of man, his physical character, his
geographic division his environmental and social relations, and his cultural development. It is
a science which studies mankind in relation to physical, social, and cultural development. We
seek the help of Anthropology to prove that early society was communal in character that is
its basis was the group rather than the individual, whom we now accept, as the unit of society.
Anthropology also tells us that that in early stages of the development of the society,
temporary marriage was the rule rather than the exception. But such a condition of society
could not last for long and the need for regulating manage was felt.
Anthropology and Political science are very closely related. In fact, political activity is
only a part of a social activity. Thus, political science appears to be activity is influenced
by the social life of man. In fact political activities will have no meaning outside the social
context. Politics is after all the reflection of society. This is made clear by the common
saying,“people have the government which they deserve”. Political science gives
anthropological facts about the organization and functions of the state and government.
Political science is concerned with the state but Anthropology studies state as one of the
human [Link] laws of the state have a great influence upon society. These laws
are largely based on customs, traditions, conventions and usages. But these customs,
traditions [Link] the concerns of anthropology. The institution of family is an element in
social life. It is a concern of anthropology.
APPROACHES TO POLITICAL SCIENCE AND ITS TYPES
An approach is the way of looking at a political phenomenon and then explaining it. The
approaches and methods to the study of Political Science are many. There are both
traditional and modern or scientific approaches. The traditional approaches are highly
speculative and normative and the modern approaches are more empirical and scientific in
nature.

Traditional Approaches

i. Philosophical Approach
It is the oldest approach to the study of politics. It is also known as speculative,
metaphysical or ethical approach. The study of state, government and the political
behaviour of man is intricately linked with the quest for achieving certain goals, morals or
truths. Here, the discipline moves closer to the world of ethics. The approach is criticized
for being highly speculative and abstract.

[Link] Approach
This approach throws light on the past and traces the origin and development of the
political institutions. It seeks to study the role of individuals and their motives,
accomplishments and failures in the past and its implications for the future. In
understanding the political issues of today, the help of historical parallels are sought.
However, critics argue that historical parallels can be illuminating, but at the same time
they can also be misleading as it is loaded with superficial resemblances.

iii. Legal Approach

The study of politics is linked with the study of legal institutions created by the State for
the maintenance of the political organization. As the State is engaged in the maintenance of
law and order, the study of judicial institutions become the concern of political theorists.
This approach looks at the State as an organization primarily concerned with the creation
and enforcement of law. However, critics argue that this approach has a narrow
perspective. The State has various other functions to perform other than enforcement of
law and order. Laws deal with only one aspect of an individual’s life and do not enable the
complete understanding of his political behaviour.

iv. Institutional Approach

This approach is also known as the structural approach. It lays stress on the formal
structures of the political organization such as legislature, executive and judiciary. The
informal structures are also studied and a comparative study of the governmental systems
are encouraged. However, this approach is criticized for laying too much emphasis on
formal and informal structures and ignoring the role of individual in those institutions.
Modern Approaches

i. Sociological Approach
This approach emphasizes on the understanding of the social context to explain the
political behaviour of the members of the community. The state is considered primarily as
a social organism and politics is understood through the sociological factors. But critics are
of the opinion that too much of emphasis on the social context can affect the very
autonomy of the discipline.
ii. Psychological Approach
This approach studies and explains political and social institutions through psychological
laws. It assumes that the psychological analysis of political leaders reveals significant
knowledge about politics. However, this approach ignores the sociological, legal and
economic factors in the study of politics.

iii. Economic Approach

As matters pertaining to production and distribution of goods are regulated by the State, the
economic matters also become a concern for the political theorists. This approach
emphasizes on the role of the State in regulating the economic matters and argues that
economic affairs are intimately linked to the political process of the State. The approach is
inclined towards linking and understanding the political and economic life of individuals.
However, the approach takes into account only the economic factors and ignores other
factors such as social and psychological factors.

iv. Behavioural Approach

This approach focuses on political behaviour and studies the attitudes and preferences of
humans in the political context. Thus, the study of politics moved its focus from formalism
and normativism to the study of political behaviour. However, critics argue that this
approach is based on a false conception of scientific methods.
POST MODERN APPROACH/ POST BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH
David Easton coined the term Post-Behaviouralism in his Presidential Address at the 65th
Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association in 1969. in fact Easton was
one of the key figures of behavioural revolution. Post-behavioralism claimed that despite
the fact that behaviouralism claimed to be value free there was tendency in it towards
social preservation and status-quo rather than social change.
Post behavoiuralism claimed that behavoiralists stress on observable and measurable
phenomena meant that too much emphasis was being placed on easily studies trivial issue
at the expense of more important topics. Easton himself declared that he felt dissatisfied
with the research made under the impact of behavoiralist movement as it looked more of
Mathematics than Political Science which had lost touch with the reality and the
contemporary world. - Post behaviouralism stressed that research should have relevance to
the society and that intellectuals have a positive role to play. The new movement believed
that the use of scientific tools in political science could be beneficial only when it is able to
solve the various problems confronting society. It criticised behavoiuralism for ignoring the
realities of society while laying too much emphasis on techniques.