Induction (Asynchronous) Machine

The induction machine is the most rugged and the most widely used ac machine in the industry. Both the stator and rotor windings
carry alternating currents. The ac power supply is supplied to the stator directly and to the rotor by induction hence the name. The
induction machine can operate both as a motor and as a generator. However, it is seldom used as a generator because the
performance as a generator are not satisfactory for most applications. It is extensively used as a motor. Small single-phase
induction motors are used in many household appliances like blenders, lawn mowers, juice mixers, washing machines,
refrigerators and stereo turntables. Large three-phase induction motors (tens to hundreds of horsepower) are used in pumps, fans,
compressors, mills and so forth. The linear version of the induction motor has been developed primarily for use in transportation
systems.

Construction Features
An induction machine has a uniform air gap between the stator and the rotor. The stator is composed of laminations of high grade
sheet steel to reduce eddy current losses. The three phase winding is placed on the slots cut on the inner surface of the stator frame.
The rotor also consists of laminated ferromagnetic material, with slots on the outer surface. The rotor may be either of squirrel-
cage type or wound rotor type.

The squirrel cage rotor consists of aluminum or copper bars embedded in the rotor slots and shorted at both ends by aluminum or
copper rings. The wound rotor has a three phase winding on the rotor whose terminals are connected to three slip rings so that
brushes pressing against them can be used to connect the windings to an external circuit, e.g., a resistor for speed control.

Three Phase Windings

Three windings on the stator or rotor are wound such that they are displaced from each other by 120º (electrical). The ends of the
three windings can be connected in delta or star.

When a current flows in a winding, it establishes an essentially sinusoidally space distribution of flux. When a three-phase current
flows in the three windings, a rotating magnetic field of constant amplitude and speed will be produced in the air gap.

Rotating Magnetic Field

Consider a two pole machine. When a current passes through a phase coil, it produces a sinusoidally distributed mmf wave
centered on the axis of the coil. If an ac flows, it produces a pulsating mmf whose instantaneous value and direction depends on
the instantaneous value of the current flowing through the winding.

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Each phase produces similar sinusoidally distributed mmf waves. However, the mmf waveforms are displaced by 120 electrical
degrees from each other. The resultant mmf is the net effect of the three component mmf waves. Consider a point in the air gap
defined by the angle θ from the axis of a phase.

Let the mmfs be Fa(θ), Fb(θ) and Fc(θ). Let the resultant mmf be F(θ) then:
F(θ) = Fa(θ) + Fb(θ) + Fc(θ)
= Niacosθ + Nibcos(θ - 120º) + Niccos(θ – 240)
now ia = Imcos ωt
ib = Imcos (ωt – 120º)
ic = Imcos(ωt - 240º)

hence F(θ,t) = NImcos ωt cosθ + NImcos (ωt – 120º)cos(θ - 120º) + NImcos(ωt - 240º)cos(θ – 240)
= 3/2 cos (ωt – θ) {using trigonometry)

The derived expression represents an mmf rotating at the constant angular velocity ω (= 2πf). At any instant, the wave is
sinusoidally distributed around the air gap. The rpm speed of the waveform is called the synchronous speed of the induction
machine. It is given by:
ns = 2/p * 60 * f
= 120f/p, where p is the number of poles and f is the supply voltage frequency.

Induction Voltage
The rotating magnetic field induces voltages in the stator and rotor windings. The flux density distribution in the air gap can be
expressed as:
B(θ) = Bmaxcos θ

The air gap flux per pole is then given by:

Φp = B(θ)lr dθ
= 2Bmaxlr, where l is the length and r is the radius of the stator/rotor.

As the field rotates, the flux linkage of a given winding will vary as the cosine of the angle ωt.
λa(ωt) = NΦpcos ωt, where N is the number of turns

The induced voltage in a phase winding id then given by:

ea = - dλa/dt
= ωNΦpsin ωt
= Emaxsin ωt

The voltages induced in other phase windings are also sinusoidal but phase-shifted from each other by 120 electrical degrees:
eb = Emaxsin (ωt - 120º)
ec = Emaxsin (ωt - 240º)

The rms induced voltage per phase is given by:

Erms = ωNΦp / 2
= 2πfNΦp / 2
= 4.44fNΦp

For a practical machine, the coils in different slots per phase induce emfs not in phase so that the phasor sum is less than the
algebraic sum. A reduction factor called the winding factor is applied to accommodate this discrepancy:
Erms = 4.44fNΦpKw, where Kw is the winding factor. It ranges between 0.85 and 0.95.

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Standstill Operation
If the three-phase stator windings are connected to a three-phase supply and the rotor circuit is left open-circuited, a field rotating
at the synchronous speed, n s, is produced in the air gap. The frequency of the field is the same as the supply power frequency (we
will denote it using f1). This field induces a voltage at the same frequency, f1, in the rotor windings. The stator and rotor voltages
are:
Stator: E1 = 4.44f1N1ΦpKw1, where N1 is the number of turns in the stator windings
Rotor: E1 = 4.44f2N2ΦpKw2, where N2 is the number of turns in the rotor windings

The winding factors Kw1 and Kw2 for the stator and rotor windings respectively are normally the same so that:
E1/E2 = N1Kw1 / N2Kw2
≈ N1/N2
= turns ratio of the machine

Phase Shifter
If the rotor is held in such a position that the axes of the corresponding phase windings in the stator and rotor make an angle β, the
induced voltage in the rotor winding will be phase-shifted by an angle β from that in the stator.

By turning the rotor mechanically, a phase shift in the range 0 to 360º can be achieved.

Induction regulator
The corresponding stator and rotor windings are connected in series so that the output voltage is the sum of the stator and rotor
voltages as shown below.

As the rotor is rotated through 360º, the output voltage, Vo follows a circular locus of variable magnitude as illustrated in the
phasor diagram. Thus, the output voltage is a variable polyphase voltage. If the induced voltages E 1 and E2 are of the same
magnitude, the output voltage can be varied from zero to twice the supply voltage.

The induction regulator has the following advantages as a variable auto transformer:
 A continuous stepless variation of the output voltage is possible
 No sliding electrical connections are necessary

The disadvantages are higher leakage inductances, higher magnetizing current and higher costs.

Running Operation
If the stator windings are connected to a three-phase power supply and the rotor circuit is closed, the induced voltages in the rotor
windings produce rotor currents that establish a magnetic field that interacts with the primary airgap flux to produce torque. The
rotor will start to rotate, if free, in the direction of the rotating field according to Lenz’s Law and such that the relative speed
between the rotating field and the rotor windings is reduced towards zero. Eventually, it will reach a steady-state speed, n, and this
speed will be less than the synchronous speed. This is so because when the rotor speed and the synchronous speed are the same, no
torque would be developed.

The difference between the rotor speed and synchronous speed is called slip. It is defined as:
s = (ns – n)/ns
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The slip rpm is the speed at which the rotor will slip behind the stator field or the relative speed of the rotor to the stator field. It is
given by:
Slip rpm = ns – n
= sns

The frequency of the voltages induced in the rotor will correspond to slip rpm as this relative motion is the one which causes
induction of voltages. The frequency of he rotor voltages, f2, is thus given by:
f2 = p/120 * (n s – n), where p is the number of poles
= p/12 * sns
= sf1
The rotor circuit frequency is called the slip frequency.

The voltage induced in the rotor at the slip frequency is given by:
E2s = 4.44f2N2ΦpKw2
= 4.44* sf1 * N2ΦpKw2
= sE2, where E2 is the voltage induced in the rotor at standstill (frequency f1).

The induced currents in the three-phase rotor winding produce a rotating field at speed n 2 with respect to the rotor:
n2 = 120f2/p
= 120sf1/p
= sns

Because the rotor is rotating at speed n 1, induced rotor field rotates in the air gap at speed n1 + n2 = (1 – s)ns + sns = ns. Hence, both
stator and rotor fields rotate at the same speed, which is the synchronous speed, and are thus are stationary with respect to each
other. The interaction between the two fields produces the torque as they tend to align.

Example
A three-phase 460V, 100hp, 60Hz 4-pole star-connected induction machine delivers the rated output power at a slip of 0.05.
determine the:
a) synchronous speed
b) speed of the rotating air gap field.
c) frequency of the rotor circuit
d) slip rpm
e) speed of the rotor field relative to
i. rotor structure
ii. stator structure
iii. stator rotating field
f) rotor induced voltage at the operating speed if the stator-to-rotor turns ratio is 1:0.5

Solution
a) synchronous speed, ns, = 120f/p
= 120 * 60 / 4
= 1800rpm

b) speed of field = ns
= 1800rpm

c) rotor frequency = f2
= sf1
= 0.05 * 60Hz
= 3Hz

d) slip rpm = sns

= 0.05 * 1800
= 90rpm

e) i. speed of rotor field relative to rotor structure = 120f2/p

= 120 * 3 / 4
= 90rpm

ii. speed of rotor field relative to stator structure = ns

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 = 1800rpm
iii. speed of rotor field relative to stator rotating field = 0rpm

f) assuming voltage induced in the stator is the same as the applied voltage,
E2s = sE2
= s * N2/N1 * E1
= 0.05 *(0.5/1) * 460/ 31/3
= 6.64V

Modes of Operation of an Induction Machine

Motoring Mode
The stator terminals are connected to a three-phase power supply and the rotor is closed so that it rotates in the direction of the
stator rotating magnetic field. This is the natural mode of operation of the induction machine. The steady state speed, n is less than
the synchronous speed.

Generating Mode
The speed of the motor is greater than the synchronous speed and in the same direction. The induction machine produces a
generating torque, that is, torque opposite to the stator rotating magnetic field and rotor. This mode is utilized in some drive
systems to provide regenerative breaking. For example, frequency of the supply to an electric induction motor is gradually reduced
so that in the process the instantaneous speed of the drive system is higher than the instantaneous synchronous speed (due to inertia
of the drive system). The resulting generating action will cause energy to flow back to the supply.

Plugging Mode
The rotor rotates in a direction opposite to the stator rotating field and torque will oppose motion of the motor, which is in the
direction of the rotating field. This is a breaking torque and it will stop the motor very quickly. It is utilized in drive applications
where the drive system is required to stop very quickly, for example, the terminal phase sequence is changed suddenly and the
stator field rotates in opposite direction producing the plugging action. The motor comes to zero speed very quickly and will
accelerate in the opposite direction unless the supply is disconnected at zero speed.

Inverted Induction Machine

In a wound rotor induction machine, the three-phase supply can be connected to the rotor via slip rings and the stator terminals are
closed. Such a machine is called an inverted induction machine. The rotor produces a rotating magnetic field at the synchronous
speed with respect to the rotor. If the rotor is stationary, the field will also rotate at the synchronous speed with respect to the
stator. If the rotor is not fixed, voltages and currents will be induced in the stator winding so that a torque will be developed.

Equivalent Circuit Model

The equivalent circuit takes the form of a transformer.

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Stator Winding Equivalent Circuit

V1 is the per phase terminal voltage

R1 is the per phase stator winding resistance
L1 is the per phase stator winding leakage inductance
E1 is the per phase voltage induced in the stator winding
Lm is the per phase stator magnetizing inductance
Rc is the per phase stator core loss resistance

The difference of the stator model from the model of a transformer primary side is only in the magnitude of the parameters:
 exciting current is as high as 30 – 50% of the rated current in an induction machine while it is 1 – 5% in a transformer
 leakage inductance is higher in an induction machine because of the distribution of the windings along the periphery of
the air gap rather than concentrated as in a transformer.

Rotor Equivalent Circuit

The rotor circuit is shown below.

E2 is the per phase induced voltage in the rotor at standstill.

R2 is the per phase rotor circuit resistance.
L2 is the per phase rotor leakage inductance.
f2 is the rotor frequency.

From circuit (a)The rotor current at frequency f2 is:

I2 = sE2/(R2 + jsX2)

The power involved in the rotor circuit is P2 = I22R2, which represents the per phase copper loss.

Rewriting the above equation for I2 gives:

I2 = E2/(R2/s + jX2)
This equation suggests the equivalent circuit (b). This circuit is the rotor equivalent circuit as seen by the stator. The per phase
power associated with the circuit (b) is:
P = I22 * R2/s
= P2/s

Since s is low, this power is considerably large. This power represents the power that crosses the air gap and thus includes the rotor
copper losses and the developed mechanical power.

Rewriting the power equation to split resistance so as to separate rotor resistance from the total resistance:
Power that crosses the air gap, Pag = P
= I22 * R2/s
= I22 [R2 + (R2/s * (1 – s))]

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This equation suggest the equivalent circuit in diagram (c). The speed dependent resistance R2/s * (1 – s) represents the
mechanical power developed by the induction machine.
Pmech = I22 * R2/s * (1 – s)
= (1 – s) * Pag
= (1 – s)/s * P2

rotor resistance losses, P2 = I22R2

= sPag

Ratio of air gap power to rotor losses to developed mechanical power is:
Pag : P2 : Pmech = 1 : s : 1 – s

Of the power that crosses the air gap, the fraction s is lost as rotor copper losses, 1 – s is developed into mechanical power. Hence
for maximum power, slip must be low. Part of the developed mechanical power will be lost to overcome windage and frictional
losses. The remainder becomes the shaft power.

Complete Equivalent Circuit

a is the stator to rotor turns ratio

Example
A three-phase, 15hp, 460V, 4-pole, 60Hz, 1792rpm induction motor delivers full output power to a load connected to its shaft. The
windage and frictional losses of the motor are 750W. determine the
a) developed mechanical power
b) power that crosses the air gap
c) rotor copper losses

Solution
a) full load shaft power = 15hp * 746W/hp
= 11190W

developed mechanical power = shaft power + frictional and windage losses

= 11190W + 750W
= 11940W

b) ns = 120f/p
= (120 * 60)/4
= 1800rpm

s = (ns – n)/ns
= (1800 – 1792)/1800
= 0.04
air gap power, Pag = Pmech/(1 –s)
= 11940/(1 – 0.04)
= 12437W

c) rotor copper losses, P2 = sPag

= 0.04 * 12437
= 498W

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Various Equivalent Circuit Configurations
The derived equivalent circuit is not convenient to use for predicting the performance of the induction machine, hence, several
simplified versions have been proposed.

Approximate Equivalent Circuit

If the voltage drop across R1 and X1 is small and terminal voltage differs little from the induced voltage E 1, the core loss resistance,
Rc and the magnetizing reactance, Xm can be moved to the terminals of the machine.

The approximate equivalent circuit considerably simplifies computation because exciting current, IΦ and referred rotor current, I2’
can be calculated directly from the terminal voltage and the corresponding impedances.

If the machine is connected to a supply of fixed voltage and frequency, the stator core loss is fixed. The rotor copper loss increases
with rotor frequency and hence increases as motor speed decreases since rotor frequency decreases with motor speed. Frictional
and windage losses increase as motor speed increases. Hence the rotor copper, frictional and windage losses compensate each
other as speed changes so that their sum remains essentially constant at all speeds if voltage and frequency of the source are
constant. Together with core losses, these losses can thus be lumped together and called rotational losses. Rc can then be removed
from the equivalent circuit to produce the equivalent circuit shown below.

IEEE Recommended Circuit

In an induction machine, the exciting current is high (30 – 50% of rated current) due to the air gap. The leakage inductance is also
high. IEEE recommends that the magnetizing reactance maintain its position. Rc is omitted and the core losses are lumped with
windage and rotational losses.

This equivalent circuit is preferred in situations where the stator induced voltage, E1 differs appreciably from the terminal voltage.

Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

To simplify computations, V1, R1, X1 and Xm can be replaced with Thevenin’s equivalent circuit values Vth, Rth and Xth. These
values can be derived and worked out as follows:
Vth = VXm
= (Xm * V1 ) / (R12 + (X1 + Xm)2)

if R12 is much less than (X1 + Xm)2 as is usually the case then:
Vth ≈ (Xm /(X1 + Xm)) * V1 = KthV1, where Kth = (Xm /(X1 + Xm)
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 Zth = Xm || (R1 + X1)
= (Xm * (R1 + X1))/(R1 + X1 + Xm)
= Rth + Xth

if R12 is much less than (X1 + Xm)2 as is usually the case then:
Zth = (Xm / (X1 + Xm))2 * R1
= Kth2R1

Determination of Equivalent Circuit Parameters

The equivalent circuit parameters Xm, R1, X1, X2 and R2 are obtained from the resistance, no load and blocked rotor tests.
Measurement of the dc stator and rotor resistances gives these respective parameters. In the no load test, the rotor is decoupled
from the mechanical load and power is measured. This power is the power loss due to frictional and windage losses. This is the
rotational losses which is normally assumed to be constant. The test thus gives information about the exciting current and
rotational losses.

In the blocked rotor test, the rotor is blocked and balanced a three-phase voltage is supplied to the stator. Current and rotoir
frequency are made to be the same values as the those that prevail under operating conditions. The test gives information about
leakage impedances.

Performance Characteristics
The mechanical torque, Tmech, developed per phase is given by:
Pmech = Tmechωmech
= I22 * R2/s * (1 – s), where ωmech = 2πn/60

now ωmech = (1 – s) ωsyn

= ns/60 * 2π * (1 – s)
and ωsyn = 120f / 60p * 2π
= 4πf1/p
Tmechωsyn = I22 * R2/s
Thus, Tmech = (I22 * R2/s)/ωsyn
= (I2’ 2 * R2’ /s)/ωsyn

Using the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit representation of an induction motor:

Tmech = (I22 * R2/s)/ωsyn
= (Vth2/(((Rth + R2’/s)2 + (Xth + X2’)2) * ωsyn * s)
If the approximate equivalent circuit is used, V1, R1 and X1 must replace Vth, Rth and Xth.

For a three-phase machine, the total torque is obtained by multiplying the per pahse torque by three:
Tmech = (I22 * R2/s)/ωsyn
= 3 * (Vth2/(((Rth + R2’/s)2 + (Xth + X2’)2) ) * ωsyn * s)

The torque speed characteristics are as shown below.

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At low values of slip:
Rth + R2’/s » Xth + X2’ and R2’/s » Rth thus:
Tmech = (Vth2/R2’) * s / ωsyn
This shows the linear torque-speed relationship near the synchronous speed.

At larger slip values:

Rth + R2’/s « Xth + X2’ thus:
Tmech = (Vth2/(Xth + X2’)2) * R2’ / sωsyn
Thus the torque varies almost inversely with slip near s = 1.

From the torque equation, at a particular speed value (slip value), torque varies as the square of the supply voltage, giving the
various torque-speed curves in the torque-speed characteristics above.

The maximum torque occurs when:

dTmech/ds = 0 giving the condition:
R2’/sTmax = [Rth2 + (Xth + X2’)2]
STmax = R2’/( [Rth2 + (Xth + X2’)2]

Combining with the torque expression gives:

Tmax = (Vth2/((Rth + ( [Rth2 + (Xth + X2’)2 * 2ωsyn)

From the two expressions, it is seen that the rotor resistance determines the value at which maximum torque occurs and not its
value. Thus, an external resistance may be added, for example to make maximum torque occur at start up.

If the stator resistance, and hence the Thevenin’s resistance is negligible then:
STmax = R2’/(Xth + X2’).
Thus maximum torque is inversely proportional to the sum of the leakage inductances.

Stator Current
The input impedance is:
Z1 = R1 + X1 + Xm || (R2’/s + X2’)
= R1 + X1 + Xm || Z2’
= R1 + X1 + Xm * (R2’/s + X2’) /( Xm + R2’/s + X2’)
the stator current is:
I1 = V1/Z1
= IΦ + I2’

At synchronous speed (s = 0), R2/s is infinite and so I2’ = 0 thus I1 = IΦ.

At large values of slip, Z2’ is low and hence I2’ is large.
At starting, when s = 1, the starting current is 5 – 8 times the rated current. The diagram below shows typical variation of stator
current with speed.

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Input Power Factor
Power factor = cos θ1, where θ1 is the phase angle of the stator current, which is the impedance angle for Z2’. Variation of power
factor with speed is shown below.

Efficiency
Power input to the stator, Pin = 3VIcos θ1
Power loss in the stator winding, P1 = 3I12R1, where R1 is the per phase stator winding resistance.
Some power is lost as hysterisis and eddy current losses. The remaining power crosses the air gap. Part is lost in the rotor winding
resistances as: P2 = 3 I22R2.
Power is also lost in the rotor core, but since the frequency is low, the losses are low and may be ignored. The remaining power is
converted to mechanical power. Part of this mechanical power is lost as windage and frictional losses to leave the output or shaft
mechanical power, Pout. Then:
Efficiency, η = Pout/Pin

If all losses are neglected except those in the rotor resistance, Pag = Pin, P2 = sPag, Pout = (1 – s)Pag, we can define ideal efficiency as
the ratio of power output to power input air gap as Pout/Pin = 1 – s.
The graph below shows the relationship of ideal efficiency to speed.

It shows that to have maximum ideal efficiency, speed must be near synchronous speed. If all other losses are included, the actual
efficiency is lower than the ideal efficiency.

Speed Control
An induction machine is essentially a constant speed motor when connected to a constant voltage and constant frequency power
supply. The output speed is very close to the synchronous speed and drops by a small amount when load torque increases. There
methods to vary speed used to make induction motors very useful in many industrial operations that require sped variation.

Pole Changing
The number of poles is changed normally in the ratio 2:1. Two independent three-phase windings are used in this case. By
changing connections to these windings, four synchronous speeds can be obtained, and hence four different operating speeds. The
speed thus changes in discrete steps. Squirrel cage motors are invariably used in this scheme of speed control.

Line Voltage Control

Torque developed by an induction machine is proportional to the square of the terminal voltage. If the motor drives a fan load,
speed can be varied over the speed range n1 to n2 by changing the line voltage.

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Line voltage can be changed by using a three-phase auto transformer or a solid state voltage controller. The solid state voltage
controller uses a set of solid state devices switched to provide a variable output average voltage. The method is inefficient at large
slips due to increased losses. However, for fan loads or centrifugal loads, power decreases as speed decreases thus though rotor
power losses are a significant fraction air gap power, the air gap power itself is low so that the rotor would not overheat. Voltage
controller circuits are simple and though inefficient are suitable for fan, pump and similar centrifugal drives.

Line Frequency Control

If the line frequency is changed, synchronous speed and hence operating speed changes. usually the frequency changer has an ac to
dc converter followed by a dc to ac converter to give output voltage at the required frequency. To avoid magnetic saturation,
terminal voltage is also varied proportional to the frequency, a control type known as constant volts per hertz.

Starting Induction Machines

Starting currents may be as high as 500 to 800% of rated current in induction motors. This may cause overheating of windings.
Hence, there exist methods to start induction motors to avoid overheating.

Direct on line starting is used for small motors with low power ratings in which overheating is unlikely to damage windings.

Start – delta starting is used in large motors. The motor windings are connected in star at start so that the terminal voltage and
hence starting current is low. This makes sure the starting current does not overheat the windings. When the motor peaks up speed
the windings are connected in delta so the that the full line voltage appears across the windings to give the rated power.

Some starters use a variable supply voltage. The voltage is gradually increased towards the rated terminal voltage as the motor
peaks up speed, mostly using solid state controllers.

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