Synchronous Alternator

The field winding is on the rotor while the armature winding is on the stator. This allows high voltages and currents to be obtained
from the alternator as it is developed in a stationary winding. As the rotor turns, the field also turns and the field flux lines cut the
armature conductors thereby generating an ac voltage in the armature.

The field excitation comes from either an electronic supply or a dc generator mounted on the alternator shaft. To vary the
generated voltage, the field excitation is varied by varying the exciter voltage.

Generated Frequency
A 2-pole machine gives one electrical cycle of generated voltage when the rotor turns one mechanical cycle. A 4-pole machine
gives two electrical cycles when the rotor turns through one mechanical cycle. Hence frequency of garneted voltage can be derived
and found to be given by:
f = (pn/2) / 60, where p is the number of poles, n is the rpm speed and 60 shows 60 seconds in a minute.
= np/120

Given angular velocity:

f = ωp/4π

Example
An alternator is to generate 60Hz.
a) How fast must its shaft turn if it has 4 poles.
b) How many poles must it have if it is turned at 90rad/sec.

Solution
a) n = 120f/p
= 120 * 60 / 4
= 1800rpm

b) p = 4πf/ω
= 4π * 60 / 90
= 8.38
number of poles should be even so we will take the closest even number, hence p = 8.

Generated Voltage
For a dc generator average generated voltage, V = NpΦω/πa, where N is the number of turns, p is the number of poles, Φ is the
flux per pole, ω is the angular speed of the rotor and a is the number of
parallel paths.

The generated voltage in a synchronous machine is derived from this expression, by first deriving the peak generated voltage and
then the rms voltage value. In rms terms, generated voltage is given by:
Ep = 1.11 NpΦωKw/π
Now ω = 4πf/p
Hence, Ep = 4.44NΦfKw
= 2.22zΦfKw, where z is the number of conductors, Kw is the winding factor (Kw = 1)

Example
A single phase aircraft alternator generates 54V rms at [Link] armature has 120 turns. Find the required flux per pole.

Solution
Φ = Ep/4.44Nf
= 4.44NΦf
= 54 / (4.44 * 120 * 400)
= 023 * 10-3Wb

Three-phase Alternator
Three similar windings are wound on the stator with their axis displaced 120º apart. As the rotor turns, three ac emfs displaced 120
electrical degrees apart would be generated in the windings.

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For clockwise rotation of the rotor, the emf sequence would be ABC and for anticlockwise rotation, the sequence would be ACB.
The alternator windings can be connected in star or delta as shown below. In star connection, the ends A’,B’ and C’ of the
windings are connected together while ends A, B and C go out. In delta, A is connected to B’, B to C’ and C to A’, and the
connected ends go out.

An alternator is rated at its full load line quantities. Thus, an alternator rated 208V, 10kVAdelivers a maximum of 10kVA at 208V
line voltage.

Alternator Equivalent Circuit

The equivalent circuit is shown below.

rp is the per phase resistance of the stator winding

xp is the per phase synchronous reactance of the stator winding
rp is quite small as compared to xp, typically 10 or more times less.
The combined effect of resistance and synchronous reactance produces the synchronous impedance. The per phase synchronous
impedance is given by:
Zs = ( rp2 + xp2)

Resistance Measurement
A dc voltage is applied to two of the stator terminals. The voltage and drawn current are measured. Ohms’ Law used to determine
resistance, ra, as seen by the dc source. This resistance is used to obtain the per phase resistance. rp’ as seen by the dc source.

For delta connected alternator, r p = 3ra/2

For star connected alternator, rp = ra/2

for some reasons, the effective per phase resistance, r p, is 40% more than the measured value. Hence:
rp = 1.4rp’

Reactance Measurement
It is determined using two tests: the short circuit test and the open circuit test.

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Short Circuit Test
The generator terminals are short circuited and the generator is run. Field current is increased until rated current flows in the
terminal lines of the generator. The field current is measured and the line current are also measured. The average line current, Isc, is
determined from the measured line currents.

Open Circuit Test

The alternator terminals are left open and the generator is run at rated speed with the field current set to the same value as one
required for line current to be rated current in the short-circuit test. The open circuit voltages are measured and used to obtain the
average open circuit voltage, Voc.

Reactance Calculation
The per phase Isc and Voc are determined from the connection of the alternator (delta or star).
Per phase synchronous impedance is given by:
Zs = Voc/Isc

Synchronous reactance can be obtained from the synchronous impedance and resistance as follows:
xp = (Zs2 – rp2)

Example
A three-phase synchronous generator rated at 50kVA, 220V, 60Hz is star-connected. Tests on it give the following:
Resistance test: V = 2V; I = 22A
Short circuit: I1 = I2 = I3 = rated current; If = 22A
Open circuit: If = 22A; V = 95V;
Find rp, Zp and xp.

Solution
ra = V/I
= 2/22
= 0.091Ω
rp’ = ra/2 (generator is star connected)
= 0.091/2
= 0.045Ω
rp = 1.4rp’
= 1.4 * 0.045
= 0.064Ω

open circuit phase voltage = (measured open circuit voltage)/ 3

= 95/ 3
= 54.8V
open circuit phase current = measured open circuit line current
= rated current
= KVAs/ 3VL
= 50000/( 3 * 220)
= 131.22A
Zs = Voc/Isc
= 54.8 / 131.22
= 0.419Ω

xp = (Zs2 – rp2)
= (0.4192 – 0.0642)
= 0.414Ω

Voltage Regulation
From the per phase equivalent circuit of an alternator, given full load voltage, VFL then:
VNL = generated voltage
= Ep
= VFL + IpZs
= ((Iprp + VFLcosθ)2 + (Ipxp ± VFLsinθ)2), + for lagging power factor
- for leading power factor

Voltage regulation is then given by:

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 VR = (VNL – VFL) / VFL
When calculating voltage regulation, care should be taken to use per phase quantities.

Example
A 100kVA, 1200V, three phase alternator is star-connected. Its resistance per phase is 0.12Ω and its reactance is 1.5Ω. find its
voltage regulation if it supplies rated load at:
a) power factor of 1
b) power factor of 0.9 lagging
c) power factor of 0.9 leading

Solution
Ip =IL
= rated current
= kVAs/ 3VL
= 100000/( 3 * 1200)
= 481V
Vp = VL/ 3
= 1200/ 3
= 693V
VNL = ((Iprp + VFLcosθ)2 + (Ipxp ± VFLsinθ)2),

a) at PF = 1 cosθ = 1 and sinθ = 0

VNL = ((481 * 0.12 + 693 * 1)2 + (481 * 1.5 + 693 *0)2)
= 1041.2V
VR = (VNL – VFL) / VFL
= (1041.2 – 693) / 693
= 50.2%

b) at PF = 0.9 lagging, cosθ = 0.9 and sinθ = 0.44

VNL = ((481 * 0.12 + 693 * 0.9)2 + (481 * 1.5 + 693 *0.44)2)
= 1232V
VR = (VNL – VFL) / VFL
= (1232 – 693) / 693
= 77.75%

c) at PF = 0.9 leading, cosθ = 0.9 and sinθ = 0.44

VNL = ((481 * 0.12 + 693 * 0.9)2 + (481 * 1.5 - 693 *0.44)2)
= 798.67V
VR = (VNL – VFL) / VFL
= (798.67 – 693) / 693
= 15.2%

REPEAT FOR DELTA CONNECTED ALTERNATOR AS ASSIGNMENT

It is noted that generated voltage changes as the loading condition changes to keep the terminal voltage constant. This is achieved
by varying the field excitation.

Efficiency
Pout = Pin – Pmech – PCu - Pcore, where Pout is the output electrical power, Pin is the input mechanical power, Pmech is the
mechanical losses, PCu is the copper losses and Pcore is the core losses
Then efficiency, η = Pout/Pin * 100%

Maximum Efficiency
It occurs when the fixed losses equal the variable losses. In an alternator, mechanical, field and core losses are constant, hence for
maximum efficiency:
k2 PCu = Pcore + Pmech + Pfield, where k is the fraction of the load rating.

Synchronous Motor
The stator is wound just like the stator of a synchronous alternator or induction machine. The rotor is wound for the same number
of poles as the stator.

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Theory of Operation
When a three-phase voltage is supplied to the stator, a rotating magnetic field is established and it rotates at the synchronous speed.
If the rotor is at rest it will try to align with the stator field and thus tries to turn to achieve this. However, before it aligns, the field
changes polarity and it tries to turn in the opposite direction to try to align to it the other way. The field reverses again so that the
rotor will rock forth and back without actually turning. Hence the machine would not develop torque at start up.

If the rotor is brought to a high speed near synchronous speed it will lock with the rotating field and rotate at synchronous speed in
the same direction as the field. It will also develop torque. The rotor field will lag the stator field by an angle α T, called the torque
angle. The torque angle increases as the load on the motor shaft increases until it is approximately 90º a point at which the motor
will develop maximum torque. If the load increases further then:
If the increase is momentary or very little, the motor will slip a pole, thus the rotor will lose grip of the stator field and
lock to it the next time around.
If the increase is big enough and not momentary, the motor will lose synchronism and stall.
The torque angle corresponding to maximum torque is equal to the synchronous impedance angle (β) of the machine.
β = tan-1 (xp/rp)
β is very close to 90º since xp » rp.

Example
A synchronous machine with a synchronous impedance of (0.12 + j1.5)Ω is run as a motor. What is the torque angle
corresponding to the maximum developed torque?

Solution
Torque angle for maximum torque = β
= tan-1 (xp/rp)
= tan-1 (1.5/0.12)
= 85.43º

Effect of Field Excitation

Consider the per phase equivalent circuit for a synchronous motor shown below.

Ep is the per phase voltage generated in the stator by the rotating rotor field. It opposes the applied stator voltage V p. Ep is due to
the rotor field and, hence, because the rotor and rotor fileds are inclined at angle, α T to each other, the phase difference between Vp
and Ep is 180º-αT.

If the machine runs at constant speed, Ep is a function of field flux (Φ) and hence a function of field excitation (I f). Now from the
equivalent circuit, the stator current is given by:
Ia = (Vp – Ep) / Zs
= VR/Zs, where VR is the phasor difference between Vp and Ep, or voltage across Zs.
Since xp » rp, the stator is virtually purely inductive and I a lags Er by 90º. Now consider the three diagrams below for different
excitation conditions with the same torque angle (after ignoring internal losses due to different torque agnles).

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In diagram (a), the motor is underexcited. Excitation is very small. E R is almost in phase with Vp. Ia lags ER and hence Vp by 90º.
Power factor is very low and lagging. Power factor angle is about 80º. In diagram (b), the motor is normally excited. Excitation has
been increased to a critical value that makes E R lead Vp by 90º. Ia lags ER by 90º and hence is in phase with Vp. Power factor is
unity. In diagram (c), the motor is overexcited. Excitation is very large. E R leads Vp by more than 90º. Ia lags ER and hence leads
Vp. Power factor is leading. Hence, the power factor of a synchronous machine can be varied from lagging through unity to leading
by varying the field excitation.

Effect of Load
If load increases, the torque angle would increase making ER rotate towards Vp causing Ia to rotate away from Vp by the same
angle. Thus the power factor would become more lagging. To increase it back to unity, excitation would need to be increased.

For the same excitation, when the torque angle changes, Ep would not change but only rotate clockwise so that magnitude of E R
increases. This increases Ia and hence proves that an increase in torque is accomplished by an increase in current, I a.

Synchronous Motor Starting Techniques

A synchronous cannot develop a starting torque, because from rest, the field would be too fast so that due to momentum, the rotor
would not be able to lock to a pole before the field reverses. A synchronous motor, thus needs to be brought up top synchronous
before it develops torque. There are two basic methods used to start a synchronous motor.

Auxiliary drive
A small motor called a pilot motor is coupled to the synchronous motor shaft. At start, the synchronous motor is decoupled from
the mechanical load and its field excitation is switched off. The pilot motor is started to bring the synchronous motor to a speed
near the synchronous speed. At this high speed, the pilot motor is switched off and the field is switched on to lock the motor into
synchronism. Since the synchronous motor is unloaded at start, the pilot motor rating may be small, usually 10% of the rated load
of the synchronous motor. The pilot motor is an induction or dc motor. If it is an induction motor, it will have fewer poles to bring
the synchronous motor to a high enough speed during starting. If it is a dc motor, the field can be adjusted to bring the motor to the
required speed. The dc motor has an advantage of being a dynamic brake to bring the synchronous motor quickly.

Induction Start Synchronous Run

The synchronous motor rotor is a squirrel cage rotor on which field windings are wound. At start, the field is de-energized and the
motor starts as an induction motor. It builds up speed to about 5 – 10% slip. The field is then switched on so that the motor pulls
into synchronism. At synchronous speed, the squirrel cage rotor winding would not generate currents because it would be at the
same speed with the rotating fields, i.e. not cutting them, and hence, it will not affect synchronous motor behavior. These squirrel
cage rotor windings are called amortisseur windings. In addition to starting the motor, they also assist in stabilizing the speed of
the motor when torque fluctuates. Speed tends to oscillate when this occurs. The speed oscillations generate currents in the
amortisseur windings which in turn generates an opposing torque that stabilizes the speed.

Power and Efficiency

Input power, Pin = 3VpIacosθ
= 3 VLILcosθ
stator copper losses, PCu = 3rpIa2
developed mechanical power, Pdev = Pin - PCu
core losses are lumped with mechanical losses into a total, Pmechc so that the output mechanical power is given by:
Pout = Pin – PCu - Pmech
Pmech is determined from the no load test of the motor.
The field winding losses, Pf = Ia2Rf
Thus, efficiency is given by:
η = (Pin – PCu - Pmech) / Pin * 100%

Torque
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The voltage across the synchronous impedance is given by:
ER = Vp - Ep
= Ia * (rp + xp)
since xp » rp then:
ER = Iaxp
The vertical component of ER is given by:
ER,v = ERsin(90 – θ)
= ERcosθ
= ER * P.F.

sinαT = ER,v / Ep
= ER * P.F. / Ep

thus αT = sin-1 (ER * P.F. / Ep)

the generated voltage is given by:

Ep = ((Vpcosθ – Iarp)2 + (Iaxp ± Vpsinθ)2), + for lagging P.F., - for leading P.F.

The torque is given by:

T = P/ω, where P is the power and ω is the angular speed of the machine.

Power Factor Correction

This is the process of improving power factor at which power is drawn from, the source.
P.F. = cosθ, where θ is the phase difference between voltage and current drawn from the source.

Causes of Low Power factor

1. induction motors when operated at low loads.
2. distribution transformers when unloaded have low power factors
3. electric arc welders have power factors less than 0.7
4. fluorescent and mercury vapour lamps have typical power factors of 0.5. However, most lighting devices have internal
devices to correct their power factor.

Disadvantages of Low Power Factor

1. it increases ratings and hence costs of distribution transformers
2. it increases sizes and hence costs of conductors
3. utilities charge cost for power below a certain power factor
4. utilities may charge for reactive power drawn from them
5. utilities may charge for the apparent power drawn from it
points 3 to 5 show that if power factor is low, the supplied end pays more than when it draws power at near unity power factor.

Correction of Power Factor

Ideally, a capacitor, draws leading power. Most loads are inductive. Hence, to correct power factor, a capacitor is connected across
an inductive load so that the total power drawn from the source is as near to unity power factor as possible. In essence, the reactive
power would then be being exchanged between the capacitor and the load as illustrated below rather than between the supply and
the load.
Since a synchronous motor can draw power at a leading power factor, it follows that it can also be used to correct power factor.
When this is done and the motor is operated at no load, the motor is called a synchronous condenser. However, very often, the
motor is used drive loads like compressors and overexcited to provide power factor correction. This is an advantage of the
synchronous motor in power factor correction in addition to the ability of its power factor to be varied to provide enough counter
capacitive power to offset inductive power of the other loads.