Name: Aheli Chatterjee

Enrolment Number: A91316625050

Programme Name: Masters in Applied Psychology
Course Name: Schools of Psychology
Course Code: PSYC659
Session: 2025-2027
Teacher’s Name: Dr. Parvati Varma
Topic: Eastern Systems in Psychology
 Buddhism and Psychology
Extant accounts of the Buddha’s life indicate that he grew up amid wealth and had
a privileged existence. He was born in a royal family at Kapilvastu, on the foot‑hills
of Himalaya, in the 6th century BC. The sights of disease, old age and death affected
him deeply and led to the realization that wealth and privilege offered little protection
from suffering. At around the age of twenty-nine, Gautama left home and began the
life of a religious wanderer. As an ascetic, he was restless in search of the real source
of all sufferings and of the path or means of cessation from these sufferings. He
sought answers to his questions from many learned scholars and religious teachers
of his time, but nothing satisfied him. He practiced great austerities, went through
intense meditations with an iron will and a mind free from all disturbing thoughts
and passions. He endeavoured to unravel the mystery of world’s miseries. Finally,
his mission was fulfilled and Prince Siddhartha became Buddha or “Enlightened”.
The message of his enlightenment laid the foundation of both the Buddhist religion
and philosophy. Like all great teachers of ancient times, Buddha taught by
conversation and our knowledge of Buddha’s teachings depends on the “Tripitakas”
or the three “baskets” of teachings of Gautama Buddha. The third part or “basket” is
known as the Abhidhamma in Pali; and Abhidharma in Sanskrit. Abhidhamma
Pitaka articulates simultaneously a philosophy, a psychology, and an ethics, all
integrated into the framework of a program for liberation.

Central Ideas in Buddhism

The Four Noble Truths comprise the essence of Buddha's teachings, though they
leave much left unexplained. They are the truth of suffering, the truth of the cause
of suffering, the truth of the end of suffering, and the truth of the path that leads to
the end of suffering. More simply put, suffering exists; it has a cause; it has an end;
and it has a cause to bring about its end. The notion of suffering is not intended to
convey a negative world view, but rather, a pragmatic perspective that deals with the
world as it is, and attempts to rectify it. The concept of pleasure is not denied, but
acknowledged as fleeting. Pursuit of pleasure can only continue what is ultimately
an unquenchable thirst. The same logic belies an understanding of happiness. In the
end, only aging, sickness, and death are certain and unavoidable.
Eightfold Path (astangika‑marga): This gives, in a nutshell, the essentials of ‘Buddha
Ethics’. This Path is open to all, monks as well as laymen. The first two segments of
the path are referred to as prajña, meaning wisdom:[1] Right views‑understanding
the Four Noble Truths, especially the nature of all things as imperfect, impermanent,
and insubstantial and our self‑inflicted suffering as founded in clinging, hate, and
ignorance. [2] Right resolve/aspiration‑having the true desire/determination to free
oneself from attachment, hatefulness, and ignorance. The next three segments of the
path provide more detailed guidance in the form of moral precepts, called ‘sila’: [3]
Right speech‑Abstaining from lying, gossiping, and hurtful speech generally. Speech
is often our ignorance made manifest, and is the most common way in which we
harm others. [4] Right action/conduct‑Right conduct includes the ‘Pancha‑Sila’, the
five vows for desisting from killing, stealing, sensuality, lying and intoxication.[5]
Right livelihood‑Making one’s living in an honest, non‑hurtful way. The last three
segments of the path are the ones Buddhism is most famous for, and concern
samadhi or meditation. Despite the popular conception, without wisdom and
morality, meditation is worthless, and may even be dangerous.[6] Right effort ‑
Taking control of your mind and the contents thereof, effort to develop good mental
habits. When bad thoughts and impulses arise, they should be abandoned. This is
done by watching the thought without attachment, recognizing it for what it is and
letting it dissipate. Good thoughts and impulses, on the other hand, should be
nurtured and enacted. [7] Right mindfulness ‑ Mindfulness refers to a kind of
meditation (vipassana) involving an acceptance of thoughts and perceptions, a “bare
attention” to these events without attachment. This mindfulness is to be extended to
daily life as well. It becomes a way of developing a fuller, richer awareness of life.[8]
Right concentration ‑ One who has successfully guided his life in the life of last seven
rules and thereby freed himself from all passions and evil thoughts is fit to enter into
deeper stages of concentration that gradually take him to the goal of his long and
arduous journey – cessation of suffering.

Buddhism and Western Psychology

Assessment of Buddhism in terms of modern western psychology started when
British Indologist Rhys Davids translated Abhidhamma Pitaka from Pali and Sanskrit
texts in 1900. She published the book entitled it, “Buddhist Manual of Psychological
Ethics”. In 1914, she wrote another book “Buddhist psychology: An inquiry into the
analysis and theory of mind”. The mid‑twentieth century saw the collaborations
between many psychoanalysts and Buddhist scholars as a meeting between “two of
the most powerful forces” operating in the Western mind. A variety of renowned
teachers, clinicians and writers in the west such as Carl Jung, Erich Fromm, Alan
Watts, Tara Brach, Jack Kornfield, Joseph Goldstein, and Sharon Salzberg among
others have attempted to bridge and integrate psychology and Buddhism, from time
to time, in a manner that offers meaning, inspiration and healing to the common
man’s suffering.
Buddhism and Western Psychology overlap in theory and in practice. Over the last
century, experts have written on many commonalities between Buddhism and the
various branches of modern western psychology like phenomenological psychology,
psychoanalytical psychotherapy, humanistic psychology and cognitive psychology.

• Descriptive phenomenology: scholars have found in Buddhist teachings a

detailed introspective phenomenological psychology (particularly in the
Abhidhamma which outlines various traits, emotions and personality types).
• Psychotherapeutic meaning: humanistic psychotherapists have found in
Buddhism's non-dualistic approach and enlightenment experiences (such as
in Zen kensho) the potential for transformation, healing and finding existential
meaning. This connection was explained by a modification of Piaget's theory
of cognitive development introducing the process of initiation.
• Clinical utility: some contemporary mental-health practitioners increasingly
find ancient Buddhist practices (such as the development of mindfulness) of
empirically proven therapeutic value.
• Popular psychology and spirituality: psychology has been popularized, and
has become blended with spirituality in some forms of modern spirituality.
Buddhist notions form an important ingredient of this modern mix.
In Japan, a popular psychotherapy based on Buddhism is Naikan therapy,
developed from Jōdo Shinshū Buddhist introspection by Ishin Yoshimoto (1916–
1988). Naikan therapy is used in correctional institutions, education, to treat alcohol
dependence as well as by individuals seeking self-development.
 Sufism and Psychology
For a long time, psychology has been an object of study for researchers. In the mid-
1960s, some humanistic psychologists, such as Abraham Maslow, Antonio Sutich,
Charles Tart, and Stanislav Grof, began to incorporate spiritual dimensions and
metaphysical aspects into psychological research. They integrated spiritual
experiences and new therapeutic techniques into psychology because they felt that
mainstream psychological approaches were too narrow and often unable to
comprehensively address humanitarian crises. They criticized the positivism
paradigm which was considered arrogant and dominant because it ignored
metaphysical phenomena, which were considered important in understanding all
aspects of humanity. (Sudirman, 2017).
This phenomenon reached its peak in 1968 when Maslow (1968) stated that
humanistic psychology is the third-generation psychology that is transitioning to the
fourth generation, namely transpersonal psychology. Transpersonal psychology
focuses on the cosmic aspect of human needs and goes beyond humanity and self-
actualization. Maslow also observed that self-actualization sometimes involves
experiences of transcendence, pointing out the difference between the two. This was
the reason for the shift from humanistic psychology to transpersonal psychology. In
1967, several humanistic luminaries such as Abraham Maslow, Anthony Sutich,
Stanislav Grof, James Fadiman, Miles Vich, and Sonya Margulies gathered in Menlo
Park, California, to pioneer a new psychology that encompassed the entire spectrum
of human experience, including extraordinary states of consciousness. They
renamed their approach “transhumanistic” and founded the Association for
Transpersonal Psychology (ATP), which later published the Journal of Transpersonal
Psychology. In 1975, Robert Frager founded the Institute of Transpersonal
Psychology in Palo Alto, California (Grof, 2012).
According to (Sutich, 1976) From an ontological point of view, the study of
metaphysics in transpersonal psychology has existed since long before the
emergence of psychological schools such as psychoanalysis, behaviourism, and
humanistic psychology. Robert Frager and James Fadiman are more interested in
studying and developing Sufi psychology. Both are founders of the Institute of
Transpersonal Psychology (ITP). Robert Freger served as the first President of the
Institute of Transpersonal Psychology (ITP), followed by James Fadiman. Apart from
being a Sufi psychology activist, Frager is also a Sufi Mursyid in the al-Jerrahi order
and changed his name to Sheikh Ragib al-Jerrahi.
Sufi psychology is part of the Islamic spiritual tradition that provides deep insight
into human spiritual development and psychological well-being. In contrast to
Western psychology which focuses more on cognitive and behavioural aspects, Sufi
psychology emphasizes inner transformation through spiritual practices such as
dhikr, meditation, and purification. (Zulki, 2022). In recent years, more and more
psychology scientists and practitioners have realized the importance of combining
spiritual approaches with scientific methods to understand the complexity of the
human psyche. Nasr's book “Living Sufism” includes cosmological aspects, as well
as other important aspects of Sufi psychology. For Nasr (2000), the human psyche
is presented as a substance that has different equipment and ways of life, separate
but unified with one axis that blocks all its paths and plans. (Sakdullah, 2020). Nasr
also adds that there is a close relationship between psychology and cosmology, where
humans can speak of a cosmic dimension to their lives, not in a quantitative sense
but qualitatively and symbolically.
While Chittick (2010) focuses more on the psychological aspects of Rumi's teachings,
he explains the Sufi psychology model as a science that examines the transformation
of the “spirit” in its journey towards God. Chittick mentions that mainstream
psychology only studies the nafs, which is the most basic aspect of the human inner
dimension, including the hayawaniyah (animalistic) and shaithaniyah (demonic)
aspects. According to Chittick, only the spirit is on God's side because it
encompasses al-nafs (soul) and allows the soul to recognize itself. Ruh is a higher
human nature than angelic nature, and only saints can attain full awareness of the
reality of God.

Central Ideas in Sufi Psychology

There are three central ideas in Sufi Islamic psychology, which are the Nafs (self, ego
or psyche), the Qalb (heart) and the Ruh (spirit). The origin and basis of these terms
is Qur'anic and they have been expounded upon by centuries of Sufic commentaries.
Nafs is considered to be the lowest principle of man. Higher than the nafs is the Qalb
(heart), and the Ruh (spirit). This tripartition forms the foundation of later, more
complicated systems; it is found as early as the Koranic commentary by Ja'far al-
Sadiq.
Nafs-
"Nafs" (self or ego) is the aspect of the psyche that can be viewed along a continuum,
and has the potential of functioning from the grossest to the highest level. The self
at its lowest level refers to our negative traits and tendencies, controlled by emotions,
desires and its gratification. Sufic psychology identifies seven levels of the nafs, which
have been identified in the Quran. The process of growth depends on working
through these levels. These are: tyrannical self, regretful self, inspired self, serene
self, pleased self, pleasing self and the pure self.
Qalb-
In Sufi psychology the heart refers to the spiritual heart or qalb, not the physical
organ. It is this spiritual heart that contains the deeper intelligence and wisdom. It
holds the Divine spark or spirit and is the place of gnosis and deep spiritual
knowledge. In Sufism, the goal is to develop a heart that is sincere, loving and
compassionate, and to develop the heart's intelligence, which is deeper, and more
grounded than the rational, abstract intelligence of the mind. Just as the physical
heart supplies blood to the body, the spiritual heart nourishes the soul with wisdom
and spiritual light, and it also purifies the gross personality traits. According to Sufic
psychology emotions are from the self or nafs, not from the heart. The qalb mediates
between the nafs and spirit. Its task is to control the nafs and direct the man toward
the spirit.
Ruh-
The spirit ruh is in direct connection with the Divine, even if one is unconscious of
that connection. The spirit has seven levels or facets of the complete spirit. These
levels are: mineral, vegetable, animal, personal, human, secret and secret of secret
souls. Each level represents the stages of evolution, and the process that it goes
through in its growth. The spirit is holistic, and extends to all aspects of the person,
i.e. the body, the mind and the soul. Each level of the spirit has valuable gifts and
strengths, as well as weaknesses. The goal is to develop the strengths and to achieve
a balance between these levels, not forgoing the lower ones to focus only on the higher
ones. In traditional psychology, Ego psychology deals with the animal soul,
Behavioral psychology focuses on the conditioned functioning of the vegetable and
animal soul, Cognitive psychology deals with the mental functions of the personal
soul, Humanistic psychology deals with the activities of the human soul and
Transpersonal psychology deals with ego-transcending consciousness of the secret
soul and the secret of secret souls.
Spirit is beyond the realm of creation. It is directly connected with Alam e Lahoot
(Unity of attributes and names) which is from Amr Allah (Command of Allah),
Therefore, Spirit already knows everything including its own source. There is now a
substantial literature on combining these elements - ruh, qalb, nafs, and aql (mind)
- to create an Islamic model for human behaviour which can be the basis for an
Islamic Psychology and Psychotherapy. A detailed overview of this work is available
in Abdallah Rothman, Developing a Model of Islamic Psychology and Psychotherapy
Islamic Theology and Contemporary Understandings of Psychology (2021). The
diagram to the right provides a compact pictorial representation of the model.
Sufi psychology is predicated on the idea that the human soul is fundamentally good
and that regaining one's original purity and oneness with God is the ultimate aim of
life.

References
▪ Aji Putra Latuconsina, R. B. S., Ghozali, G., & Freyani Hawadi, L. . (2024).
The Integrative Paradigm of Sufi Psychology. Jurnal Indonesia Sosial
Teknologi, 5(9), 3742–3755. [Link]
▪ Aich, Tapas Kumar. Buddha philosophy and western psychology. Indian
Journal of Psychiatry 55(Suppl 2):p S165-S170, January 2013. | DOI:
10.4103/0019-5545.105517
▪ Vu, Huong Xuan. (2024). A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW ON THE
CORRELATION BETWEEN BUDDHISM AND PSYCHOLOGY. THE AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY INNOVATIONS AND RESEARCH, 6(1),
2642-7478. [Link]