EAST WEST INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Course Title: Engineering Physics for Computer Science Engineering.

Course Code: APHS102/202

MODULE 5: SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

Certain metals, alloys and compounds exhibit zero resistivity and hence infinite conductivity at a temperature above
0 K. These materials are called superconductors, and the phenomenon is known as superconductivity

Concept of Phonon:
Phonon: it is particle-like entity which carries the unit energy of elastic field in a particular mode is called phonon.
The energy of the phonon is given by hν.
Or
Phonon is a unit of vibrational energy that arises from oscillation atoms within a crystal lattice.

Variation of resistivity with temperature and impurity in metals and superconductors:

In metals the scattering takes place basically in two mechanisms
1. Resistivity 𝝆𝒑𝒉 due to scattering of electrons by lattice vibrations (phonons) which increases with temperature.
Therefore 𝜌𝑝ℎ is temperature dependent. It is the resistivity exhibited by pure specimen that is free of all defects and
hence called the Ideal resistivity.
2. Resistivity 𝝆𝒊 due to scattering of conduction electrons by the presence of impurities, and imperfections such as
dislocation vacancies, and grain boundaries. This type of scattering is independent of temperature and contributes to
resistivity even at the temperature T= 0K. 𝝆𝒊 is therefore called residual resistivity.
Since adding the two scattering mechanisms mentioned above
If ⍴ is the total resistivity of the metal:
⍴ = ⍴ph + ⍴i − −(1)
The above equation is called Matthiessen’s rule.
Matthiessen’s rule: states that the total resistivity of a metal is the sum of the resistivity due to phonon scattering
which is temperature dependent and the resistivity due to scattering by impurities which are temperature independent.
1 𝑛𝑒 2 τ
Since the resistivity ⍴ = and σ =
σ 𝑚
𝑚
The equation for ⍴ can be written as ⍴ = 𝑛𝑒 2 τ
If τph is the mean collision time, assuming there is no scattering by impurities then
𝑚
⍴ph = 2
𝑛𝑒 τph

Similarly, if τi is the mean collision time assuming there is no scattering by lattice vibrations, then

𝑚
⍴i =
𝑛𝑒 2 τi
Therefore equation (1) can be written as,
𝑚 𝑚
2
⍴= + 2
𝑛𝑒 τph 𝑛𝑒 τi
For lower temperatures, the amplitude of vibrations becomes small because of which, the scattering of electrons by the
lattice ions also becomes less.
This results in τph becoming large, and τph tends to zero at very low temperatures. It essentially means that ⍴ = ⍴i at
very low temperatures.

Accordingly in the given figure below, the resistivity has a residual value ⍴i at T=0. On the other hand, when the
temperature becomes high, the amplitude of lattice vibrations increases proportionately which results in
large scale scattering of electrons. Consequently, the resistance curve takes an upswing, and the resistivity becomes
linearly dependent on temperature. At sufficiently high temperatures, the scattering effect due to phonons swamps the
effect due to scattering by impurities. Thus, at temperatures near room temperatures, the resistivity curve is essentially
linear.
Dr. Shilpa Adiga, Department of Physics
 EAST WEST INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Course Title: Engineering Physics for Computer Science Engineering.
Course Code: APHS102/202

Temperature dependence of resistivity in superconductors:

The resistance of the super conductor in the non-superconducting state

decreases with decrease in temperature as in case of normal metal up to
particular temperature Tc. At Tc, the resist ance abruptly drops to zero. Tc is
called the critical temperature. Example mercury loses its resistance
completely and turns into superconducting state at 4.2 k.

The temperature at which resistivity of the material drops to zero is called

transition temperature or critical temperature.

Eg., Hg = 4.2 K, Pb = 7.2 K, Nb = 4.5 K, Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide = 92 K etc.

Temperature dependence of Critical field:

It is defined as the minimum magnetic field required to switch the material from superconducting state to normal state
and is denoted by Hc.
The dependence of HC on T is shown in fig.
In the figure, the curve of HC v/s T is almost parabolic. If the superconductor is
held at 0 K, then higher magnetic field is required to destroy the superconducting
property. When the temperature of the superconductor is close to TC, then lesser
magneticfield is sufficient to destroy the superconducting property.

𝑇2
Critical field is: 𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻0 [1 − ]
𝑇𝐶2
T is the temperature of the superconducting material.
TC is a critical temperature.
HC is a critical field.
H0 is the field required to turn the superconductor to a normal conductor at 0K.

Meissner’s Effect and Explanation:

Meissner’s effect states that if a superconductor is cooled below Tc and placed in a magnetic field H (< 𝐻𝑐) then the
magnetic flux is excluded or thrown out of the bulk of the specimen.

Figure: Meissner’s effect- above Tc and below Tc

The flux density in a magnetic material is related to the strength of applied field,
Dr. Shilpa Adiga, Department of Physics
 EAST WEST INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Course Title: Engineering Physics for Computer Science Engineering.
Course Code: APHS102/202

⃗ = µ0 (𝐻
𝐵 ⃗ +𝑀
⃗⃗ )

⃗⃗ is intensity of magnetization.
𝑀
⃗ is the applied field strength.
𝐻
⃗ is the magnetic flux density.
𝐵
⃗ =0
According to Meissner effect at 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑐 , 𝐵
⃗ +𝑀
0 = µ0 (𝐻 ⃗⃗ )
Here µ0 ≠ 0, therefore,
⃗ +𝑀
0 = (𝐻 ⃗⃗ )

⃗ = −𝑀
𝐻 ⃗⃗

⃗⃗
𝑀 ⃗⃗
𝑀
As magnetic susceptibility (χ) 𝜒= ⃗
𝐻
= −𝑀 ⃗⃗
= −1

χ = −1

Thus, the super conductor shows perfect diamagnetism.

Types of Superconductors:
Depending upon the behavior of superconductors in the external magnetic field they have been classified into 2 types.
Type-1(or) Soft superconductor
Type-2(or) Hard superconductor
Type-1 super conductors (Soft superconductors):
• They exhibit the complete Meissner effect.
• They are perfectly diamagnetic.
• As soon as the applied field H exceeds HC, the entire material becomes normal by losing its diamagnetic
property completely and magnetic flux penetrates throughout the body.
• The critical field value for type 1 superconductors is found to be very low of (0.1T).
• Material in the superconducting state retains its diamagnetic nature, until the critical field is reached.
• Once the critical field is reached, the material suddenly loses superconducting property as shown in figure (a)
below.
• Here onwards the flux starts penetrating the specimen.
• They are not useful for the construction of superconducting magnets.
• These superconductors find very limited applications because of their lower HC
• ex: Mercury - 4.15 °K, Lead - 7.2 °K, Aluminum - 1.175 °K and Zinc - 0.85 °K.

Type-2 Superconductors (Hard Superconductors):

• They do not exhibit the complete Meisner effect.
• They are characterized by two critical magnetic fields namely lower critical field HC1and upper critical field HC2.
• They do not jump abruptly to normal state liketype-1 superconductor.
• For the applied field less than HC1the magnetic field is completed expelled out of the superconductor and it behaves
as perfect diamagnetic.
• When the field is greater than HC1 and less than HC2, the flux starts penetrating the specimen. In this region, the
material is not perfect diamagnetic but still retains zero resistance. Hence it is called a mixed state or vortex state.
• When the applied field exceeds HC2, all the flux will penetrate the specimen, and the material becomes a normal
conductor as shown in figure (b) below
Dr. Shilpa Adiga, Department of Physics
 EAST WEST INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Course Title: Engineering Physics for Computer Science Engineering.
Course Code: APHS102/202

• Since large magnetic fields are required to destroy superconducting properties so they are calledhard
superconductors.
• Ex: Generally, alloys and complex oxides of ceramics, Boron-doped diamond and silicon, compounds like Y-Ba-
Cu-O, Bi-Sr-Ca-Cu-O etc

Figure: (a) Type I superconductor, (b) Type II superconductor.

BCS Theory of Superconductivity:

The BCS theory, proposed in 1957 by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer, explains how certain
materials exhibit superconductivity i.e., zero electrical resistance and the expulsion of magnetic fields, at low
temperatures. It describes how electrons in a metal can form pairs, known as Cooper pairs, which move through the
material without resistance.
Formation of cooper pairs, energy gap and zero resistance:

• Normally, electrons repel each other due to their negative charge. However, in a superconducting material, an electron
moving through the lattice distorts it slightly, creating a region of positive charge.

• This distortion attracts another electron, forming a weakly bound Cooper pair via phonon (lattice vibration)
interaction.

• The two electrons in a Cooper pair have opposite momenta and spins, allowing them to behave as a single quantum
entity.

• At low temperatures, Cooper pairs condense into a collective ground state, behaving like a superfluid that flows
without scattering.

• The formation of Cooper pairs creates an energy gap (Δ) in the electronic energy spectrum.

• This gap means that thermal fluctuations cannot easily break the pairs, preventing scattering and thus leading to zero
electrical resistance.

Figure: Formation of cooper pair

Dr. Shilpa Adiga, Department of Physics

 EAST WEST INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Course Title: Engineering Physics for Computer Science Engineering.
Course Code: APHS102/202

High Temperature Superconductors

Super conductors that exhibit high Tc are called High temperaturesuperconductors. Generally, those superconductors
that can work at liquid Nitrogen temperature(above 77K) are classified under High Tc superconductors. They are
oxides of copper bearing perovskite crystal structure
Ex: of HTS is mercury –barium- calcium- copper- oxide (Hg Ba2 Ca2 Cu3O10) having Tc at 135k.

Properties of HTS:

• HTS are highly anisotropic structures.

• Hall mobility of HTS is very small.
• Bonding of atom is covalent.
• HTS are brittle substances.
• They cannot carry large magnitude of current.
• They are type-II or hard superconductors.
•
Quantum Tunneling:
It is defined as quantum mechanical process where wave function can penetrate through a potential barrier. The
transition through the potential barrier can be finite and relies exponentially on the barrier width and barrier height.
When the quantum wave reach the barrier, its amplitude will decrease exponentially.

Figure: Quantum tunneling

(E the energy of the particle and V the potential energy of the barrier)

Superconducting tunnel junction (STJ):

The superconducting tunnel junction (STJ) — also known as a superconductor–insulator–superconductor tunnel
junction (SIS) — is an electronic device consisting of two superconductors separated by a very thin layer of insulating
material. Current passes through the junction via the process of quantum tunneling.
Josephson Junctions:
A Josephson junction is made by sandwiching a thin layer of a non-superconducting material between two layers of
superconducting material. The non superconductingbarrier separating the two superconductors must be very thin.
If the barrier is an insulator, it must be about 30 angstroms thick or less. If the barrieris another metal, it can be as
much as several nanometers thick. In this system, the cooper pairs tunnel through the barrier without resistance
This phenomenon of flow of current between two pieces of superconductor separated by a normal material is called
Josephson effect and the current is called Josephson current.

(a) dc Josephson effect:

It is the phenomena of flow of super current through the junction even in the absence of external emf. If the voltage
across the junction is measured it gives zero.
Consider a Josephson junction containing two superconducting films separated by thin oxide layer. Here cooper pairs in
the superconductor starts tunneling through the oxide layer which are represented by wave function. During this process
the oxide layer introduces the phase difference between inputand output wave functions. Due to this, super current flow
through the junction, even in the absence of externalsource.
Dr. Shilpa Adiga, Department of Physics
 EAST WEST INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Course Title: Engineering Physics for Computer Science Engineering.
Course Code: APHS102/202

The super current through the junction is

Is = Ic sin 0
Ic = critical current at zero voltage, which depends on the thickness of
the junction layer and the temperature, 0 = Phase difference between the
wave functions of cooper pairs.
Figure: dc Josephson effect
(a) ac Josephson effect:
When dc voltage is applied across the Josephson junction, it leads to the development of oscillating current. In other
words, an alternating emf of high frequency is established across the junction. This effect is called as AC Josephson
effect. The frequency of the generated AC is
f = 2eV / h
here 2eV is the energy difference between the cooper pairs on either
side of the junction

The application of dc voltage across the junction causes the additional

phase change for the cooper pairs.

Is = Ic sin (0 + Δ) Figure: ac Josephson effect

Δ is the phase difference

SQUID (Superconducting quantum interference device or Magnetometer):

(Question: Write an application of Josephson effect)

• Stands for Superconducting Quantum Interference Device

• It is an instrument used to measure extremely weak magnetic fields of the order of 10-13 T

• Hence it is a sensitive magnetometer.

• Heart of the SQUID is a super conducting ring containing one or more Josephson junctions.

• Two types of SQUIDS are available, namely DC SQUID and RF SQUID.

• It works on the principle of Josephson effect.

DC SQUID: It has two Josephson junctions connected in parallel and works on the interference ofcurrent from two
junctions. It works on the principle of DC Josephson effect which is the phenomenon of flow of super current through
the junction even in the absence of external emf.

Figure: SQUID Figure: Cross- sectional view

Dr. Shilpa Adiga, Department of Physics

 EAST WEST INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Course Title: Engineering Physics for Computer Science Engineering.
Course Code: APHS102/202

Construction and working:

• P and Q are twoJosephson Junctions arranged in parallel.

• When current I flow through the point C, it divides into I1 and I2

• Hence the wave function due to these super currents (cooper pairs) experiencea phase shift at P and Q

• In the absence of applied magnetic field, the phase difference between the wave functions is zero. If the magnetic field
is applied perpendicular to the current loop, then the phase difference between the wave functions will not be zero. This
is identified by the sum of the currents I1’ and I2’

• The magnitude of phase difference is proportional to applied magnetic [Link], even if there is a weak magnetic
field in the region it will be detected.

• Due to its low-cost manufacturing, it is commonly used SQUID in many applications.

MAGLEV

MAGLEV is an acronym of magnetic levitation. The most spectacular applications of this would be maglev trains.
The coaches of the train do not slide over steel rails but float on a four inch air cushion above the track using Meissner
effect of super conducting magnets.

Construction:

• The train has a superconducting magnet built into the base of the carriages.

• An aluminium guide way is laid on the ground and carriers electric current.

• The walls of the guid e way have a series of horizontal and vertical coils mounted inside the guide way. These
coils are made up of normal conductors

Figure: MAGLEV

Working:

• The current flowing through its horizontal coils produce a vertical magnetic field. By Meissner effect the
superconducting magnet S expels the vertical magnetic flux. This levitates the train and keeps it afloat the
guide way, the horizontal coils are thus called levitating coils.

• On the other hand current passing through the vertical coil produce a horizontal magnetic field which pushes
the train forward. Thus the vertical coils are called propelling coils.

• The train is fitted with retractable wheels similar to the wheels of an aircraft. Once the train is levitated in air
the wheels are retracted into the body and the train glides forward on the air cushion.
Dr. Shilpa Adiga, Department of Physics
 EAST WEST INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Course Title: Engineering Physics for Computer Science Engineering.
Course Code: APHS102/202

• When the train is to be halted the current through the levitating and propelling coils are switched off. The train
descends slowly on to the guide way and runs some distance on it till it stops.

• The utility of such levitation is that in the friction the energy loss is minimized allowing the speed of the train
rise up to 581 kmph.

Quantum dot:
Quantum dots (QDs) are tiny semiconductor nanoparticles, typically ranging from 2 to 10 nanometres in diameter.
They have unique optical and electronic properties due to quantum confinement effects, which occur when electrons
are restricted in all three spatial dimensions.

Key properties of quantum dots:

• Size-dependent optical properties – The colour of light emitted by a quantum dot depends on its size. Smaller QDs
emit blue light, while larger ones emit red light.

• High photoluminescence efficiency – They exhibit strong fluorescence with high brightness and stability.

• Tuneable bandgap – By changing their size or composition, the electronic bandgap can be adjusted, making them
useful for various applications.

• Quantum confinement effect – Electrons and holes in QDs behave differently than in bulk materials, leading to
discrete energy levels.

Applications of quantum computing:

Charge qubit: In quantum computing, a charge qubit is also known as Cooper-pair box. It is a qubit whose
basis states are charge states. The states represent the presence or absence of excess Cooper pairs in the
island. In superconducting quantum computing, a charge qubit is formed by a tiny superconducting island coupled by
a Josephson junction or practically, superconducting tunnel junction to a superconducting reservoir (see figure). The
state of the qubit is determined by the number of Cooper pairs which have tunneled across the junction.

Phase qubit: A phase qubit is a current-biased Josephson junction, operated in the zero-voltage state with a non-zero
current bias. This employs a single Josephson junction, and the two levels are defined by quantum oscillations of the
phase difference between the electrodes of the junction. DC squid is a type of phase qubit.

Flux qubit: Flux qubit (also known as persistent current qubits) are micrometer sized loops of superconducting metal
that is interrupted by a number of Josephson junctions. These devices function as quantum bits. The Josephson
junctions are designed so that a persistent current will flow continuously when an external magnetic flux is applied.
Only an integer number of flux quanta are allowed to penetrate the superconducting ring.

Figure: Superconducting qubit circuit diagram

Dr. Shilpa Adiga, Department of Physics

 EAST WEST INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Course Title: Engineering Physics for Computer Science Engineering.
Course Code: APHS102/202

Figure (a): Charge qubit composed of a Josephson junction and a capacitor. Adjusting the voltage Vg can control the
number of Cooper pairs.
Figure (b): Flux qubit. L is the loop inductance. Changing the bias flux Φ can adjust the energy level structure of the
qubit.
Figure (c): Phase qubit. Adjusting the bias current I b can tilt the potential energy surface.

Dr. Shilpa Adiga, Department of Physics