Chapter 3: Biopsychology

This chapter strives to explain the biological mechanisms that underlie behavior. It will focus on
genetic influences, the structure and function of the nervous system, and how this system
interacts with the nervous system.

3.1 Human Genetics

Why do psychologists study genetics?

_____________________________________________________________________________.
While humans share many biological mechanisms and anatomy, are these expressed in a wide
variety of behaviors, thoughts, and actions? Y N . What theory is Charles Darwin famous for
developing? ____________________________________________________. This theory
suggests the organisms that are __________________________________ will
__________________________________. Thus, those less well suited will die off.

GENETIC VARIATION
What contributes to a species’ adaptation to its environment? __________________________.
Chromosomes are long strings of genetic material know as ___________. In each chromosome,
sequences of DNA make up _______________ that control or partially control a number of
traits (eye color, hair, color, etc.). What are the multiple variations of each gene called?
________________. So a gene may code for a specific trait (such as hair color), and the
different alleles of that gene affect what hair color a person will have.

The fusion of a sperm and egg (each of which contains 23 chromosomes) creates a
_________________ with 23 pairs of chromosomes. What are the resulting physical
characteristics of the offspring called? ______________________. What is the genetic makeup
of the individual called? _______________________. Are most traits controlled by multiple
genes or a single gene? _______________________. Alleles can be either dominant or
recessive. If a person inherits a dominant allele for a particular trait from either parent (cleft
chin for example), then that trait will be expressed (i.e. the person will have a cleft chin). It only
requires one dominant allele for a trait to be expressed. If a person has two similar copies of
the alleles for a given gene, they are said to be __________________ for that allele (i.e. both
alleles are dominant, or both are recessive). However, if the alleles are different (i.e. one is
dominant, one is recessive) they are said to be ______________________ for that allele. If a
person is heterozygous for a particular allele, will the corresponding trait be expressed? Y N .
Since it only takes one dominant allele for a trait to be expressed, a person with a heterozygous
pattern WOULD show the trait. If both inherited alleles are _________________ the trait will
NOT be expressed. Can parents who do not have an expressed characteristic produce offspring
who DO have a characteristic? Y N . They can if the trait is recessive, and both parents are
carriers (i.e they have a dominant allele and a recessive allele for the trait). If this is the case,
there is a 1 in 4 chance their offspring will inherit that trait.
Most traits are not controlled by a single gene, most are ______________. What is a mutation?
_________________________. While many mutations are lethal or harmful, are some
mutations beneficial? Y N . Sometimes the genetic variation caused by mutations improves an
organism’s ability to adapt to its environment. Genetic variation allows some members of a
given population an advantage when it comes to adaptation.

GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS
Do genes exist in a vacuum? Y N . We exist in environments that influence not only how and
when genes are expressed, but also in what combination. We are all products of the unique
interaction between _________________________________ and our __________________.
What is range of reaction? Genes ________________________________within which we can
operate, and __________________________________________________ to determine where
in that range we will fall. While our genes and environment interact, do they also influence one
another bidirectionally? Y N . What is this called? __________________________________.
The expression of our genes influences our environments, and our environments also influence
the expression of our genes. What is epigenetics?
__________________________________________________________________________.
Sometimes individuals with identical genetic makeup (genotype) demonstrate different traits or
characteristics (phenotype). Do genes affect more than just our physical characteristics? Y N .
What are some behavioral characteristics that have been found to be influenced by genes?
_________________________________________________________________. Genes are
also associated with temperament and a number of psychological disorders.

3.2 Cells of the Nervous System

Now let’s turn our attention to the nervous system. What are the two basic cell types found in
the nervous system? _____________________________________. Which cells are thought to
primarily play a supportive (both physically and metabolically) role? _____________________.
Which cells serve as interconnected information processors that are essential for all tasks of the
nervous system? __________________

NEURON STRUCTURE
How many neurons do you have at birth? ___________________. A neuron’s outer surface is
made up of a semipermeable membrane that allows some molecules to pass through, but
prevents the passage of other molecules. Where is the nucleus of the neuron located?
__________________(or cell body). Branching out from the soma are extensions known as
___________________. Another major extension extending from the soma is known as the
____________, the ends of which are called ____________________. What is contained in the
terminal buttons? ___________________. And what do these house?
__________________________. These are the chemical messengers of the nervous system.
Most nerve cells have only one axon, but many dendrites.
Some axons are coated in a fatty substance called the ______________________. This sheath
coats the axon and acts as an insulator which increases
________________________________________________. It is also crucial for normal
operation of the neuron. What is one autoimmune disorder that is caused by the destruction of
the myelin sheath? _____________________________. Is there any known cure for MS? Y N .

In healthy individuals, the neurological signal moves rapidly down the _______________ to the
______________________, where _______________________release ___________________
in the _____________________. The synapse is a very small space between two neurons and is
an important site where neural communication occurs. Once neurotransmitters are released
into the synapse, they travel across the synaptic gap and __________ with corresponding
_____________________ on the ______________________ of an adjacent neuron. Receptors,
which vary in shape, are proteins where the neurotransmitters attach. A neurotransmitter binds
to any receptor with a corresponding shape (like a key fits a lock).

NEURONAL COMMUNICATION
How does a neural signal move through a neuron and jump to the next neuron? We will begin
at the _____________________________. This membrane keeps intra-and extracellular fluid
(which have different electrical charges) separate. The difference in electrical charge across the
membrane is called the ________________________. When a neuron is not sending or
receiving a message, the membrane potential is held in a state of readiness called the
_______________________________. When a neuron receives a signal, its resting state
changes abruptly. A neuron receiving signals at it’s dendrites (from adjacent neurons releasing
neurotransmitter into the synaptic gap) changes the electrical charge. If this charge reaches a
certain level, called the ______________________________, the neuron becomes active and
the _______________________ begins. The action potential (caused by a movement of ions
across the membrane) is a sudden positive spike in electrical charge. The action potential
moves from the _________________ down the __________ to the
_______________________. The electrical signal moves down the axon like a wave and will
continue until it reaches the axon terminal. The action potential is an
_________________phenomenon…once the threshold of excitation has been reached the
neuron will fire completely down the entire length of the axon. As noted earlier, the action
potential will travel to the terminal button, force the synaptic vesicles to release their
neurotransmitter where they cross the synapse and bind with receptors on the adjacent
dendrite. Once the signal is delivered, excess synaptic neurotransmitter drifts away, is broken
down into inactive fragments, or are reabsorbed by the sending axon in a process know as
________________. This process involves the neurotransmitter being
___________________________________ in order to clear the synapse.

NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND DRUGS

There are several different types of neurotransmitters released by different neurons, and we
can speak in broad terms about the kinds of functions associated with each. Some of the major
neurotransmitters and their function are presented below
 Neurotransmitter Involved in Potential Effect on Behavior
Acetylcholine Increased arousal, enhanced
cognition
Beta-endorphin Pain, pleasure

Mood, sleep, learning

Gamma-aminobutyric acid Decreased anxiety,

(GABA) decreased tension
Glutamate Memory, learning
Hear, intestines, alertness Increases arousal,
suppressed appetite
Serotonin Modulated mood,
suppressed appetite

Psychoactive drugs can act as _________________ or _____________________ for a given

neurotransmitter system. Which chemicals mimic a neurotransmitter at the receptor site and
thus strengthen its effects? _________________________. On the other hand, which
chemicals block or impede the normal activity of a neurotransmitter at the receptor?
__________________ Other chemicals influence the function of neurotransmitters in other
ways. __________________________________________ is when a chemical prevents unused
neurotransmitter from being transported back to the neuron. Since the neurotransmitter
remains in the synapse longer, its effects are increased.

3.3 Parts of the Nervous System

The nervous system can be divided into two major subdivisions: the _______________ nervous
system (CNS), which consists of the _____________ and spinal cord, and the
________________ nervous system (PNS), which connects the __________ to the
________________.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The PNS is made up of thick bundles of axons (called _______________) which carries messages
back and forth between the ______________ and the muscles, ______________, and senses in
the periphery of the body. The PNS has two major subdivisions: the __________________
nervous system and the ______________________ nervous system. The somatic nervous
system is involved in the relay of sensory and motor information to and from the CNS. It
consists of _____________ neurons (carrying motor instructions from the brain to the muscles)
and ______________ neurons (carrying sensory information from the sense organs to the
brain). The ______________________ nervous system controls our ___________________ and
glands and is generally considered to be outside our voluntary control. It is further subdivided
into the ________________ nervous system and the __________________ nervous system.

The sympathetic nervous system is activated when we are faced with ________________ or
______________________situations. This constellation of physiological changes is known as
the ____________________________________. It allows the body access to energy reserves
and heightened sensory capacity so that it might fight off a threat or run away to safety. Is
typically a useful response for the types of stresses and threats we face in the modern world? Y
N . Once the threat has been resolved, the ________________ nervous system takes over and
returns bodily functions to a relaxed state of equilibrium (or _______________________).

3.4 The Brain and Spinal Cord

THE SPINAL CORD

The ___________________ connects the brain to the outside world. Not only does the spinal
cord direct messages to and from the brain, but it also has its own system of automatic
processes, called __________________. The spinal cord is functionally organized into 30
segments corresponding with the vertebrae. Each segment is connected to a specific part of
the body through the PNS. _____________nerves bring information in; motor nerves
____________________________ to the muscles and organs. Are some sensory messages
acted on immediately by the spinal cord without any input from the brain? Y N . Is this a good
thing? Y N . Without this immediate feedback loop, an organism might experience much more
damage to the body.

NEURPLASTICITY
Neuroplasticity refers to how the nervous system can _____________________________. Does
the adaptation happen in response to a variety of situations and experiences? Y N. .
Neuroplasticity can involve the creation of ________________________, _________________
of synapses that are no longer used, changes in _________________________ and even the
_____________________________________. While our brains exhibit most plasticity in early
life, do our brains change and adapt throughout our lifespans? Y N .

THE TWO HEMISPHERES

The surface of the brain is known as the _______________________. Its wrinkled appearance
is due to the pattern of bumps (______________) and grooves or folds (___________). The
longitudinal fissure separates the cerebral cortex into two halves or ___________________ (left
and right). Is there some evidence of specialization of function of the left and right
hemispheres? Y N . What is this called? _____________________. What side of the body
does the left hemisphere control? _______________ What side does the right hemisphere
control? ________________. A thick band of neural fibers known as the
_________________________ connects the two hemispheres. The corpus callosum allows the
two hemispheres to __________________ with each other. Are we normally aware of the
different roles the two hemispheres play in day-to-day functioning? Y N . However some
people, who have had their corpus callosum surgically severed, show a variety of interesting
behaviors which illustrate the hemispheres’ specialized functions. For instance, if a split-brain
patient is shown a picture in their left visual field (which goes to their right hemisphere) they
are unable to name it. This is because the right hemisphere is largely nonverbal…..language is
localized in the left hemisphere (for most people). However, if they are asked to draw a picture
of what they saw (using their left hand), will they be able to do so? Y N . This is because the
left hand is controlled by the right hemisphere. Once the patient sees what they drew (the
picture goes to both hemispheres) they will then be able to verbalize what they saw (because
the verbal left hemisphere finally saw picture the right hemisphere drew).

FOREBRAIN STRUCTURES
The two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are part of the ____________. This is the largest
part of the brain and consists of the cerebral hemispheres and several other structures
including the ___________________, the hypothalamus, _______________________ and the
limbic system structures. Which part of the forebrain is associated with higher level processes
such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory?
_____________________________.

Lobes of the Brain

There are four lobes in both cerebral hemispheres, each associated with different functions.
The _______________lobe is located in the front part of the brain and is involved in reasoning,
motor control, emotion, and language. It contains the _____________ cortex, where motor
impulses originate, the __________________cortex, which is responsible for higher-level
cognitive functioning, and __________________, which is essential for language production. A
person who suffers damage to Broca’s area (which for most people is located primarily in the
left hemisphere) will have great difficulty _____________________. Perhaps the most famous
case of frontal lobe damage is the case of _____________________. Even though he physically
survived the horrific accident, was his personality profoundly changed? Y N . The path of the
tamping iron probably severed the connections between the frontal lobe (responsible for
planning functions and impulse control) and the limbic system (responsible for emotional
processes).
The brain’s ___________________is located immediately behind the frontal lobe, and is
involved in processing information from the ______________________. It contains the
______________________ cortex, which processes sensory information related to touch.
Located on the sides of the brain are the _______________ lobes. What is this area of the
brain associated with? ___________, memory, _______________, and some aspects of
____________________. The ________________ cortex, the main area of the brain which
processes auditory information, is located in the temporal lobes. Also located in the temporal
lobe (more specifically the left temporal lobe), is ______________area. This area is crucial for
language ____________________. Remember, Broca’s area is critically important for
______________ language, while Wernike’s area is critically important for _________________
language. Which lobes are located at the very back of the brain? _______________. These
lobes house the ___________________________, which is responsible for interpreting
incoming visual information.

Other Areas of the Forebrain

Other structures of the forebrain include the thalamus, which is a _______________ for the
brain. All senses (except smell) travel through this structure on their way to the higher areas of
the brain for processing. The _______________________ is a collection of structures which are
involved in processing _______________________. One limbic system structure, the
____________________ , is essential for learning and memory. The amygdala is involved in our
experience of ________________and in tying _____________________ to our
_____________________. What is the function of the hypothalamus?
___________________________________, including body temperature, appetite, and blood
pressure. Is this structure also the interface between the nervous system and the endocrine
system? Y N .

MIDBRAIN AND HINDBRAIN STRUCTURES

The midbrain is comprised of structures deep within the brain between the forebrain and the
hindbrain. Which structure is centered in the midbrain (although it extends into both the
forebrain and the hindbrain)?________________________. This structure is important in
regulating the sleep/wake cycle, _________________, alertness, and ____________________.
The substantia nigra and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) are also located in the midbrain.
Both of these structures are strongly related to dopamine production, and thus play an
important role in behavior and mental processes that are regulated by this important
neurotransmitter (i.e. voluntary movement, _________, reward, and _______________).
The ________________ is located at the back of the head and looks like and extension of the
spinal cord. It contains three structures, including the _________________, which controls the
automatic processes of the autonomic nervous system (i.e. breathing, heart rate, and blood
pressure). The pons connects the __________ and ________________________. It is also
involved in regulating ___________________ during sleep. The medulla, pons, and midbrain
together are known as the ___________________. The third hindbrain structure is located just
behind the brainstem and is called the __________________. The cerebellum controls
_________________, coordination, movement, and __________________. Does it also process
some types of memories? Y N . In particular, procedural memories (i.e. muscle memories)
seem to be processed here.

BRAIN IMAGING
Brain researchers has a variety of techniques at their disposal for investigating the structure
and function of the brain. A summary is presented below
Technique How it is conducted
Computerized Tomography (CT) scan Imaging technique in which a computer
coordinates and integrates multiple x-rays of
 Technique How it is conducted
a given area
Involves injecting individuals with a mildly
radioactive substance and monitoring
changes in blood flow to different regions of
the brain.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Magnetic fields used to produce a picture of
the tissue being imaged

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging

(fMRI)

Recording the electrical activity of the brain

via electrodes on the scalp

3.5 The Endocrine System

The _______________________ consists of a series of glands that produce chemical substances

known as _____________. Hormones are chemical messengers (like neurotransmitters)
however they are secreted into the ___________________ and travel throughout the body.
The effects of neurotransmitters are __________________ , immediate, and short-term, while
the effects of hormones are ________________, slower, and _____________________.
Hormones regulate a wide range of bodily functions and are controlled by interactions between
the _______________________ (in the CNS) and the ________________________________(in
the endocrine system).

MAJOR GLANDS
The pituitary gland is located just below the hypothalamus at the base of the brain and is often
referred to as the “________________________” because its messenger hormones control all
the other glands in the endocrine system. The pituitary gland also secretes ________________,
________________ and a number of key hormones that regulate fluid levels in the body. The
thyroid gland is located in the neck and releases hormones that regulate growth, metabolism,
and appetite. The adrenal glands sit on top of the kidneys and secrete hormones involved in
the ______________, including _______________(adrenaline) and
__________________________(noradrenaline). What endocrine gland regulates blood sugar
levels via the hormones insulin and glucagon? ____________________________. Finally, the
_________________(ovaries and testes) secrete sexual hormones which mediate sexual
motivation and behavior.